L/ 


U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF   AGRICULTURE 

OFFICE  OF  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS— BULLETIN  NO.  127, 

A.    C.    TRUE,   Director. 


INSTRUCTION  IN  AGRONOMY  AT 
AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGES. 


5e*LT"*4i  , 


BY 


WA.   C.^RTJE    and    U.  J.   CROSBY. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT    PRINTING    OFFICE. 

1  9  0  3 . 


I  .  S.  DEPARTMENT   OE   AGRICULTURE. 

OFFICE  OF  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS— BULLETIN  NO.  127. 

A.    C.    TRUE,    Director. 


INSTRUCTION  IN  AGRONOMY  AT  SOME 
AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGES. 


BY 


A.   C.   TRUE    and    J).  J.   CROSBY. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT    PRINTING    OFFICE, 

19  03, 


OFFICE  OF  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS. 

A.  C.  Tun:,  Ph.  D.— Director. 

E.  W.  Allen,  Ph.  D. — Assistant  Director  and  Editor  of  Experiment  Station  Record. 

W.  II.  Beal— .Chief  of  Editorial  Division. 

C.  E.  Johnston — Chief  Clerk. 

EDITORIAL     DEPARTMENTS. 

E.  \Y.  Allen,  Ph.  I).,  and  H.  W.  Lawson — Chemistry,  Dairy  Farming,  and  Dairying. 

W.  II.  Beal — Agricultural  Physics  and  Engineering. 

Walter  H.  Evans,  Ph.  D. — Botany  and  Diseases  of  Plants. 

('.  F.  LANGWORTHY,  Ph.  D. — Foods  and  Animal  Production. 

.1.1.  Schulte — Field  Crops. 

E.  V.  Wilcox,  Ph.  I). — Entomology  <tnd  Veterinary  Science. 

('.  B.  Smith — Horticulture. 

D.  J.  Crosby — Agricultural  Institution*. 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 


U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 

Office  of  Experiment  Stations, 

Washington,  D.  C,  May  18,  1003. 
Sir:  I  have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith  a  report  on  courses  in 
agronomy  in  several  agricultural  colleges.  There  is  now  considerable 
activity  in  our  agricultural  colleges  in  developing  and  strengthening 
the  courses  of  instruction  in  this  division  of  the  science  of  agriculture. 
The  report  has  been  prepared  at  the  suggestion  of  the  committee  on 
methods  of  teaching  agriculture  of  the  Association  of  American  Agri- 
cultural Colleges  and  Experiment  Stations,  and  is  an  outcome  of  the 
work  of  that  committee.  I  feel  sure  that  such  a  comparative  presenta- 
tion of  courses  actually  being  given  in  some  of  our  colleges  will  aid  in 
the  further  development  and  strengthening  of  this  line  of  work  in 
other  institutions,  and  I  therefore  recommend  the  publication  of  the 
report  as  Bulletin  1^7  of  this  Office. 

The  illustrations  have  been  carefully  selected  from  a  large  number 
furnished  by  the  colleges,  and  are  intended  to  show  distinctive  features 
of  the  equipment  for  instruction  in  agronomy  at  the  institutions  repre- 
sented in  the  bulletin. 

Respectfully.  A.  C.  True, 

Director. 
Hon.  James  Wilson. 

St  art  t<i r)j  of  ^  Vgricvltwrt . 


CONTENTS 


Page. 

Purpose  and  scope  of  this  bulletin 9 

Work  of  the  committee  on  methods  of  teaching  agriculture 11 

Syllabus  of  course  in  agronomy 13 

Outline  for  a  course  of  lectures  or  a  text-book  on  agronomy 16 

Practicums  or  laboratory  work  in  agronomy 18 

Detailed  description  of  courses  in  agronomy 18 

Alabama  Polytechnic  Institute 18 

Exhibit  No.  1. — Examinations  in  agronomy . 21 

Exhibit  No.  2.—  Students'  field  notes 22 

The  College  of  Agriculture  of  the  University  of  Illinois 23 

Exhibit  No.  3. — Judging  corn 30 

Exhibit  No.  4. — Students'  laboratory  blanks  in  soil  physics 32 

Michigan  Agricultural  College 37 

Exhibit  No.  5. — A  few  of  the  practicums  in  agronomy 42 

Exhibit  No.  6. — Examination  questions  in  soils  and  crops 47 

(  ollege  of  Agriculture  of  the  University  of  Minnesota 47 

Tin-  University  of  Nebraska 51 

Ohio  State  University 56 

Exhibit  No.  7. — Laboratory  work  in  the  elementary  course  in  soils..  59 

Exhibit  No.  8. — Detailed  schedule  of  laboratory  work 69 

Exhibit  No.  9. — Examination  in  elementary  course  in  farm  crops 70 

Exhibit  No.  10. — List  of  laboratory  or  held  practicums  in  elementary 

course  in  farm  crops 71 

The  Agricultural  Institute  of  the  University  i  >f  ( rottingen 74 

History 74 

Present  organizatii  >n 76 

Requirements  for  admission 77 

Course  of  study 77 

Methods  of  instruction 78 

Instruction  in  agronomy 79 

Facilities  for  instruction 82 

5 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PLATES. 

Page. 
Plate  I.  University  of  Illinois,  bird's-eye  view  of  agricultural  building 

and  experiment  fields 28 

II.  Fig.  1. — University  of  Illinois,  class  in  agronomy  studying  root 
development  of  corn.  Fig.  2. — University  of  Illinois,  class 
in  agronomy  collecting  samples  of  soil 2S 

III.  Fig.  1. — University  of  Illinois,  soil  fertility  laboratory  for  analy- 

sis and  synthesis  of  soils  and  fertilizers.     Fig.   2. — Univer- 
sity of  Illinois,  class  in  agronomy  in  pot  culture  laboratory. . .         28 

IV.  Fig.  1. — University  of  Illinois,  soil  physics  laboratory.     Fig.  2. — 

University  of  Illinois,  farm  crops  seed  laboratory 28 

V.  Michigan  Agricultural  I  ollege,  Agricultural  Hall 40 

VI.  Fig.  1. — Michigan  Agricultural  ('ollege,  students  making  me- 
chanical analyses  of   soils.      Fig.  2. — Michigan    Agricultural 

College,  soils  laboratory  and  class  room 40 

VI 1.    Fig.  1. — University  of  Minnesota,  Dairy  Hall.     Fig.  2. — Univer- 
sity of  Minnesota,  emasculating  and  cross  pollinating  wheat. .         50 
VIII.  Fig.  1. — University  of  Minnesota,  Centgener  thrashing  machine 
and  fanning-mill  separator  in  use  in  the  field  crop  nursery. 
Fig.   2. — University  of  Minnesota,  machine  for  planting  grain 

in  nursery  beds 50 

IX.    University  of  Nebraska,  agricultural  building 52 

X.  Fig.  1. — University  of  Nebraska,  field  crops  laboratory,  students 
judging    seed  corn.     Fig.  2.  —  University  of  Nebraska,    soils 

laboratory 52 

XI.  Fig.  1. — University  of  Nebraska,  apparatus  for  making  determi- 
nations of  soil  moisture.      Fig.  2. — University  of  Nebraska, 

experiment  plats 52 

XII.   Fig.  1. — University  of  Nebraska,  seed  laboratory.     Fig.  2. — Uni- 
versity of  Nebraska,  a  corner  in  the  seed  storeroom 52 

XIII.  Ohio  State  University.  Townshend  I lall 58 

XIV.  Fig.  1. — Ohio  State  University,  mechanical  analysis  of  soil.     Fig. 

2. — Ohio  State  University,  torsion  balance  used  in  soil  phys- 
ics laboratory 68 

XV.  Gottingen  Agricultural  Institute,  main  building 76 

XVI.  Fig.   1. — Gottingen    Agricultural  Institute,    looking    southeast. 
Fig.  2. — Gottingen  Agricultural  Institute,  looking  northeast 

from  institute  buildings  across  the  experiment  plats 84 

XVII.  Gottingen  Agricultural  Institute,  greenhouse 84 

7 


8 

TEXT  FIGURES. 

Page. 

Fig.  1.  Centrifuge,  shaker,  and  electric  motor  used  in  mechanical  analysis  of 

Boils 28 

2.  Tubes  of  galvanized  iron  used  to  study  effectiveness  of  mulches  upon 

moisture  losses 40 

:\.  King's  aspirator  to  determine  the  effective  size  of  soil  grains 41 

4.  Apparatus  used  to  study  the  movement  of  air  through  soils 43 

•").    Apparatus  used  to  study  percolation  of  water  through  soils 44 

6.  Hot-air  drying  oven 4(5 

7.  Centrifugal  seed-grading  machine 51 

s.   Movable  soil  thermometer. 53 

9.  Soil  sampling  apparatus 54 

10.  Apparatus  for  determining  specific  gravity  of  soils 60 

11.  Determination  of  volume  weight,  apparent  specific  gravity,  and  poros- 

ity of  soils 61 

12.  Soil-compacting  machine 62 

13.  Determining  the  power  of  soils  to  retain  moisture 63 

14.  Rate  of  percolation  of  water  through  soils (i4 

15.  Apparatus  to  determine  the  rate  of  flow  of  air  through  soils ii."> 

16.  Soil  tubes  for  showing  the  effect  of  mulches  on  evaporation  of  water 

from  soils 65 

17.  Determining  the  power  of  air-dry  soils  to  absorb  moisture  from  the  air.  (>(> 

18.  Measuring  capillarity  in  soils 07 

19.  Apparatus  f< >r  testing  the  adhesiveness  of  soils 68 

20.  Card's  apparatus  for  testing  the  adhesiveness  of  soils 69 

21 .  Apparatus  fur  taking  soil  samples 70 

22.  Plan  of  experiment  grounds  at  Gottingen  Agricultural  Institute 83 


INSTRUCTION  IN  AGRONOMY  AT  SOME  AGRICUL- 
TURAL COLLEGES. 


PURPOSE  AND  SCOPE  OF  THIS  BULLETIN. 

This  bulletin  is  based  on  the  reports  of  the  committee  on  methods 
of  teaching  agriculture  of  the  Association  of  American  Agricultural 
Colleges  and  Experiment  Stations  and  on  further  inquiries  made  by 
the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations.  It  is  intended  to  supplement  the 
work  of  the  committee  in  collating  detailed  information  regarding 
instruction  in  agronomy.  The  status  of  that  work  at  the  time  the 
committee  made  its  sixth  report"  is  indicated  by  the  following  para- 
graph from  that  report  : 

After  consultation  with  the  instructors  in  agriculture  in  the  different  colleges,  it 
has  seemed  well  for  your  committee  to  undertake  to  present  in  some  detail  informa- 
tion regarding  the  courses  in  agriculture  and  the  facilities  for  instruction  in  this 
subject  in  our  colleges.  Tt  is  especially  desirable  to  put  on  record  data  regarding 
distinctive  features  of  these  courses  and  the  materials  for  demonstration  and  illustra- 
tion alreadv  existing  in  different  institutions.  Your  committee  has,  therefore, 
undertaken  during  the  present  year  to  collate  such  information  regarding  the  course 
in  agronomy.  Considerable  material  has  already  been  accumulated,  but  some  time 
must  elapse  before  it  will  be  in  form  for  publication.  Your  committee  therefore 
asks  that  it  may  be  granted  leave  to  print  its  report  on  agronomy  in  our  agricultural 
colleges,  in  whole  or  in  part,  in  the  next  proceedings  of  this  association,  and  be  given 
authority  to  negotiate  with  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  for  the  separate  pub- 
lication of  its  detailed  report  on  this  subject. 

Authority  to  publish  its  detailed  report  in  accordance  with  the 
above  request  was  granted  the  committee,  which,  however,  was  not 
able  to  prepare  the  material  in  time  for  printing  in  the  proceedings 
of  the  association.  This  Office  undertook,  therefore,  to  complete  the 
report  and  publish  it. 

Subsequent  inquiries  on  the  part  of  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations 
by  correspondence,  by  members  of  the  Office  force  making  visits  of 
inspection  to  the  agricultural  experiment  stations,  and  by  a  special 
officer  sent  to  visit  a  number  of  the  colleges,  showed  that  Avhile  many 

"  Presented  at  the  convention  of  the  Association  of  American  Agricultural  Colleges 
and  Experiment  Stations  in  Washington,  L>.  C,  November  12-14,  1901. 

9 


1(1 

of  the  agricultural  colleges  have  made  some  progress  in  differentiating 
agronomy  from  the  other  subdivisions  of  agriculture,  only  a  few  have 
developed  well-balanced  courses  in  agronomy,  with  laboratory  and 
Held  practicums  in  which  special  forms  for  scoring  different  crops  and 
specially  devised  apparatus  are  used.  It  soon  became  apparent  that 
it  would  not  be  feasible  to  publish  within  the  scope  of  a  Department 
bulletin  detailed  information  regarding  the  courses  of  study  in  all  the 
agricultural  colleges  in  the  United  States  and.  furthermore,  that  such 
publication  would  not  at  present  be  desirable  because  (1)  it  would 
include  a  number  of  institutions  that  have  not  yet  been  able  or  have 
not  found  it  desirable  to  differentiate  agronomy  from  the  general  sub- 
ject of  agriculture;  and  (2)  it  would  include  some  colleges  that  are 
just  reorganizing  their  courses  of  instruction  with  reference  to  the 
subdivisions  of  agriculture,  including  agronomy,  and  are  not  now  in 
a  position  to  make  a  showing  commensurate  with  their  facilities  for 
instruction. 

It  has  been  decided,  therefore,  to  include  in  this  bulletin  (1)  a  brief 
review  of  the  work  of  the  committee  on  methods  of  teaching  agricul- 
ture, together  with  such  excerpts  from  the  reports  of  that  committee 
as  have  a  bearing  on  the  present  discussion;  and  (2)  detailed  descrip- 
tions of  courses  in  agronomy  in  seven  agricultural  colleges —six  in  the 
United  States  and  one  in  Europe.  The  institutions  selected  include 
(1)  two  colleges  not  connected  with  universities — Alabama  in  the 
South  and  Michigan  in  the  North;  (2)  two  university  colleges  having 
schools  of  agriculture  (agricultural  high  schools)  connected  with 
them— Minnesota  and  Nebraska;  (3)  two  university  colleges  in  which 
no  provision  for  preparatory  work  is  made — Illinois  and  Ohio;  and 
( '■!)  a  university  college  in  Germany — the  Agricultural  Institute  of  the 
University  of  GOttingen. 

In  the  detailed  statements  regarding  the  course  in  agronomy  in 
these  institutions  the  four-year  agricultural  course  has  been  consid- 
ered in  a  general  way  as  to  its  purpose,  requirements  for  admission, 
and  -cope;  then  attention  has  been  given  to  agronomy,  its  position  in 
the  four-year  course,  preparation  for  it  secured  by  means  of  previous 
work  in  botany  and  chemistry,  its  scope  and  the  method  of  presenta- 
tion to  the  students.  Under  this  last  head  an  account  has  been  given 
of  the  equipment  used,  such  as  buildings,  lecture  and  laboratory  rooms, 
apparatus,  collections,  special  forms,  library  facilities,  and  land,  and  the 
leading  features  of  this  equipment  have  been  illustrated.  In  the  prep- 
aration of  these  detailed  statements  Prof.  J.  F.  Duggar,  of  Alabama; 
Dr.  C.  (i.  Hopkins,  of  Illinois;  Prof.  J.  A.  Jeffrey,  of  Michigan; 
Prof.  \Y.  M.  Hays,  of  Minnesota;  Prof.  T.  L.  Lyon,  of  Nebraska,  and 
Prof.  \V.  I).  Gibbs,  of  Texas  (formerly  of  Ohio),  have  rendered 
Valuable  assistance. 


11 


WORK  OF  THE  COMMITTEE  ON  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 
AGRICULTURE. 

The  first  report  of  the  committee  on  methods  of  teaching-  agricul- 
ture a  pointed  out  that  "  one  great  obstacle  to  the  intelligent  discussion 
of  the  scheme  of  agricultural  instruction  and  the  methods  of  agricul- 
tural teaching  is  the  lack  of  a  definite  nomenclature  of  the  subject," 
and  suggested  " for  the  consideration  of  the  association  a  tentative 
scheme  for  the  division  of  what  is  commonly  designated  agriculture 
in  courses  of  study  into  several  distinct  branches  or  subdivisions,  and 
for  giving  each  of  these  branches  a  definite  name,  as  follows: 

Agronomy,  or  agriculture  J  Climate,    soils,    fertilizers,    and    crops — 

(technical).  {       plant  production. 

Zootechny,  or  animal  in-  {  Animal  physiology  and  animal  produc- 
tion. 

Agricultural  industries,  e.   g.,    dairying, 
sugar  making. 


Agr.'  culture 


dustrv. 

Agroteehny,  or  agricul- 
tural technology. 

Rural  engineering,  farm 
mechanics,  or  farm 
equipment. 

Rural  economy  or  farm 
management. 


Roads,  drains,  irrigation  systems,  farm 
buildings,  etc. 

General  policy  of  farm  management, 
rural  law,  agricultural  bookkeeping, 
etc. 


In  its  second  report6  the  committee  first  undertook  '"to  determine 
the  general  relation  of  a  course  in  technical  agriculture  to  the  other 
courses  of  study  which  should  be  connected  with  this  to  form  a  four- 
year  course  in  an  agricultural  college,'1  adopting  as  a  working  basis 
the  following  portion  of  the  report  of  the  committee  on  entrance 
requirements,  courses  of  study,  and  degrees:0 

In  the  judgment  of  your  committee,  it  is  not  too  much  to  require  the  equivalent, 

of  fifteen  hours  per  week  of  recitations  and  lectures,  together  with  ten  hours  per 
week  of  laboratory  work,  or  practicums,  including  the  time  devoted  to  military 
science  and  drill.  Upon  this  basis  the  above-mentioned  general  studies  should  be 
assigned  a  relative  importance,  approximately  as  follows: 


Algel  >ra 

Geometry 

Trigonometry 

Physics  (class-room  work) 

Physics  (laboratory  work) 

Chemistry  (class-room  work)  ... 
Chemistry  (laboratory  work)  ... 
English 200 


Hours. 
75 

.  40 
40 
75 
75 
75 
75 


Hours. 


M<  xlern  languages 340 


Psychology 

Ethics  or  logic  

Political  economy 
General  history  . . 
Constitutional  law 

Total 


60 
40 
60 
80 
50 


1 ,  285 


"Report  presented  to  the  Association  of  American  Agricultural  Colleges  and 
Experiment  Stations  at  the  convention  held  in  Washington,  D.  C,  November  10-12, 
1896.  See  U.  S.  Dept,  Agr.,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Bui.  41,  p.  57,  and 
Circ.  32. 

&SeeTJ.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Bui.  49,  p.  29,  and  Circ.  37. 

''See  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Bui.  41,  p.  52. 


12 

The  total  number  oi  hours  included  in  a  four-year  course,  allowing  fifteen  hours 
per  week  for  thirty-six  weeks,  would  be  2,140;  with  ten  hours'  laboratory  work,  or 
practicums,  added,  3,600.  In  general  term-,  therefore,  the  foregoing  general  studies 
should  comprise  about  two-fifths  of  the  work  required  for  a  bachelor's  degree. 

The  committee  on  methods  of  teaching  agriculture  then  suggested 
••additional  subjects  to  be  included  in  a  four-year  course  in  agricul- 
ture leading  to  the  degree  bachelor  of  science,"  as  follow-: 

Hours. 

Agriculture 486 

I  [orticulture  and  forestry L80 

Veterinary  science,  including  anatomy 180 

Agricultural  chemistry,  in  addition  to  general  requirement 180 

Botany  (including  vegetable  physiology  and  pathology) 180 

Zoology  (including  entomology)  120 

Physiology 180 

<  le< >1< tgy 120 

Meteorology <ii> 

Dsawing 60 

T< >tal 1 .  74»> 

Taking  up.  then,  the  subject  of  agriculture,  the  committee  recom- 
mended the  following  allotments  of  time  to  its  subdivisions: 

Hours. 

1.  Agronomy,  or  plant  production 132 

2.  Zootechny,  or  animal  industry 162 

.">.  Agrotechny,  or  agricultural  technology 72 

4.   Rural  engineering,  or  farm  mechanics 60 

•").    Rural  economics,  or  farm  management 60 

T«  »tal 486 

It  was  also  announced  that  the  committee  would  next  take  up  in 
detail  the  topics  properly  included  under  the  head  of  "Agronomy,'1 
"with  a  view  to  presenting  a  syllabus  of  a  course  in  that  subject  which 
shall  show  with  some  fullness  the  topics  to  be  treated,  their  relative 
importance;  the  time  which  should  be  devoted  to  each,  and  especially 
the  order  of  presentation  which  conforms  most  closely  to  sound  peda- 
gogical principles."  This  was  done  in  the  third  report"  of  (he  com- 
mittee, which  was  divided  into  three  parts,  as  follows: 

( 1  ;  A  syllabus  denning  the  Limits  of  a  course  in  agronomy,  and  stating  the  topics 
included  in  agronomy  in  the  order  in  which  they  should  he  presented  to 
students,  i.  e.,  in  their  logical  and  pedagogical  order. 

(2)  A  series  of  lecture  or  chapter  headings  showing  how  the  syllabus  for  agronomy 

may  he  applied  in  preparing  a  course  of  lectures  or  a  text-hook  on  this  sub- 
ject.  covering  ninety-nine  class-room  hours  or  periods  of  sixty  minutes  each, 
i.  c,  three  lecture  or  recitation  periods  a  week. 

(3)  A   sei'ies  of  subjects  for  practicums   or  laboratory  exercises  to  be  used   in  con- 

nection with   the  class-room  work  in  agronomy,  and  covering  the  thirty-three 

remaining  hours  or  periods  (equivalent  to  sixty-six  hours  of  sixty  minutes 
each  i .  assigned  to  the  course  in  agronomy,  i.  e.,  one  practicum  per  week. 

"S-.-  I'.  s.  Dept.  A-!..  Office  of  Experiment  stations  Bui.  65,  p.  79,  and  Circ.  39. 


13 

It  has  been  the  object  of  the  committee  to  make  such  an  outline  of  this  course  as 

can  easily  be  adjusted  to  the  requirements  of  institutions  with  different  organization 
and  environment.  While  the  syllabus  is  intended  to  limit  the  range  of  subjects 
which  may  properly  he  included  under  agronomy,  the  amount  of  attention  which 
shall  be  given  to  particular  topics  will  vary  according  to  circumstances.  The  series 
of  chapters  and  practicums  are  in  a  measure  intended  simply  to  show  a  way  in  which 
the  subject  of  agronomy  may  be  presented  in  actual  practice.  This  is  especially  true 
of  that  portion  of  the  course  which  relates  to  individual  farm  crops,  to  which  atten- 
tion will  naturally  be  given  according  to  their  relative  importance  in  different 
localities 

SYLLABUS  OF  COURSE  IN  AGRONOMY. 


Definition 


Theory  and  practice  of  the  production  of  farm  crops.  In 
agronomy  we  need  to  consider  the  several  kinds  of  plants 
grown  as  farm  crops  under  the  following  subject-: 


TllE  PLANT. 


Structure  ( anatomy) , 
Composition. 
Physiology. 
Environment. 


Plant  production 


Env  [ronmen t 

<  reneral  factors. 


In  agriculture  has  for  its  objecl  the  adaptation  of  environ, 
ment  to  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  plants  under 
cultivation,  with  a  view  to  securing  crops  which  are  best 
suited  to  the  uses  of  man  or  the  domestic  animals. 

We  may  conveniently  begin  the  study  of  plant  production 
by  considering  the  general  characteristics  of  the  environment 
of  plants  as  grown  in  the  field. 

f  Light. 
Heat. 

Moisture j 

Air 


a  .1  |   Natural 

]   With  fertilizers 


Plant  food. 


But  environment  may  be  conveniently  divided  according 
to  position,  as  follows: 


Environment 

Divided  according  to 
position.)  (Chapters 
I-III  of  lecture  out- 
line page  16.) 


Above  gr<  »un 

(climate ) 


Under  ground, 
(soil ) 


Light  .. 

Heat... 
Moisture 

Air  .... 


Heat 

Moisture  . . . 

Air 

Earth     soil 
Fertilizers  . . 


Study  the  relation  of 
each  of  these  factors 
to  plant  growth,  and 
also  briefly  their  ef- 
fects in  different  com- 
binations, i.  e..  differ- 
ent climates. 

Point  out  that  the  rela- 
tion of  these  factors 
to  plant  growth  may 
be  most  clearly  per- 
ceived by  first  consid- 
ering them  in  their 
relation  to  each  other 


14 


Definition — Nature. 

Functions. 


( >ngin 


Properties 


Temperature. 

Air. 


Moisture 


Son { 

(Chapters  IV-XXXI.) 


Tillage 


Fertilizers 


Uriel'  geological  outline. 
Weathering  of  rocks. 
Accumulation  of  organic  matter. 
Transformation  of  organic  matter  (nitrifi- 
cation and  denitrification,  etc.  |. 
Additions  from  atmosphere. 


Chemical. 


Physical. 


Weight 

Color 

Texture  

Capillarity... 
Permeability. 
Absorptive 
power. 


( 'lassilieation 
of  soils,  on 
the  basis  of 
their  prop- 
erties. 


I  Water  table. 

Sources J  Hygroscopic    moisture 

Amounts I  Rainfall. 

I  Irrigation — Methods. 

,,  I    Purpose  and  effects. 

Dramage |M,.h„,l, 

,.  I  Purpose. 

(  onservation      '         *     , 
Methods. 


Purpose    and 

effects. 
Methods. 

Definition. 

Methods     and 
action. 


Chemical. 

Physical. 

Biological. 


effects 


Chemical. 

Physical. 

Biological. 


Clas- 
sifica- 
tion. 


1.  According  to  constituents — 

a.  Nitrogenous. 

b.  Phosphoric. 

c.  Potassic. 

d.  ( )ther  amendments. 

2.  According  to  form — 

a.  Green    ma- 
nures. Farm  ma- 

b.  Animal  ma-         nures. 
nures. 

C   Commercial  —  classi  f  y 
principal  forms. 

(Study  lirst  the  general  theory  of  ferti- 
lizers according  to  above  scheme  and 
then  consider  in  as  much  detail  as  may 
be  deemed  desirable  different  kinds  of 
fertilizers,  using  Schedule  A.) 


15 


Soil — Continued  .. 
(Chapters  I V-XXXI. 


Fertilizers 


Kinds  of 
fertiliz- 
ers. 


Schedule  A. 

Name. 
Description. 


Properties 


Che  in  L  cal  - 
composition. 
Physical. 


Place  in  classifications. 

Sources. 
Uses. 

Preparation,    care,    and    han- 
dling. 
Application. 


Effects 


Economy 


Chemical. 

Physical. 

Biological. 

Extent   of 

duct  ion. 
Pecuniar  y 

value. 


pro- 


Waste  and  ren- 
ovation. 


Washing. 

Transportation  by  wind  and  water. 
Leaching. 

Oxidation. 

Cropping — Rotation  of  crops,  systems  of 
tanning. 


Farm  crops  

(Chapters    XXXII. 
XXXIII.) 


Having  considered  in  a  general  way  the  theory  and  prac- 
tice of  plant  production  as  related  to  the  structure,  physiology, 
and  environment  of  the  plants  grown  as  farm  crops,  we  come 
next  to  consider  the  production  of  different  kinds  of  crops 
more  in  detail. 


Cereals — Wheat,  oats. 

Grasses — Timothy,  hrome  grass. 

Legumes — lied  clover,  alfalfa. 

Tubers — Potatoes. 

Roots — Mangels. 

Sugar  plants — Sugar  cane,  sugar 

beets. 
Fibers — Cotton,  flax,  hemp. 
Stimulants — Tobacco,  tea,  coffee. 
Medicinal  and  aromatic  plants — 

Ginseng,  mint. 
Miscellaneous — Canaigre,  peanuts. 
Breeding. 
Selection. 


Classification 

i  The  classification  and 
the  kinds  of  plants  to  be 
named  under  each  class 
will  vary  according  to 
eircumstances.) 


Methods   of 
inent. 


improve- 


16 


Individual     farm 

CHOI'S. 

(Chapters  KXXIV-LXI.) 
(The  cmps  to  be  studied 
will  vary  according  to 
locality  and  other  cir- 
cumstan< 


Varieties 


Next  study  individual  farm  crops  according  to  the  follow- 
ing scheme: 

Name. 

Place  in  classification. 

Structure. 

Composition. 

Physiology. 

Botanical  relations. 

|  ( Classification. 
|  Improvement. 
<  reographical  distribution. 

Choice  and  preparation  of  soil. 
Manuring. 

Seeds    (or  other  parts   of    plant* 
used   I'm-  planting)—  Selection— 
amount — treatment. 
Planting. 
Cultivating. 
Place  in  rotation. 
Harvesting. 
Preservation. 

I'ses. 

Preparation  for  use. 


( 'iiltmv 


<  obstructions  to  growth, 
preservation,  or  use. 


Production. 

Marketing. 
;   History. 


Weeds  .... 

Fungi 

Bacteria 

Insects 

Birds 

Quad  rn[  »e<ls 


Moans  of   repres- 
sion. 


OUTLINE  FOR  A  COURSE  OF  LECTURES  OR  A  TEXT-BOOK  ON 

AGRONOMY. 

[The  lecture-  arc  intended  to  cover 99  hours.] 

Chapter  I.  General  climatic  conditions. 

II.  Plant  food  and  growth. 

III.  Air  as  a  source  of  plant  food. 

IV.  The  nature,  functions,  origin,  and  wasting  of  soils. 

V.   Properties  of  soils,  chemical  and  physical.     Classifications,  texture,  com- 
position, and  kinds  of  soils. 
VI.    Physics  of  soils  as  related  to  plant  growth  I  capillarity,  solution,  diffusion, 
and  osm<  ig 
VII.   Soil  temperature. 
VIII.   Relation  of  air  to  soil. 
I  X.   Soil  water. 
X.   Irrigation. 

XI.   Improvement  of  soil  through  drainage. 
XII.   I  drainage  methods. 

XIII.  Conservation  of  soil  moisture. 

XIV.  Physical  effects  of  tillage. 

X  V.  ( 'hemieal  and  biological  effect--  of  tillage. 


17 


Chapter  XVI.    ."Methods  of  tillage. 
XVII.  Methods  of  tillage. 
XVIII.   Fertilizers — Methods  and  effects,  of  action. 
XIX.  Fertilizers — Classification  by  constituents  and  form. 
XX.   Sources  and  uses  of  nitrogen. 
XXI.  Sources  and  uses  of  phosphoric  acid. 
XXII.   Sources  and  uses  of  potash. 

XXIII.  Sources  and  uses  of  other  amendments. 

XXIV.  Practical  advice  on  the  use  of  commercial  fertilizers. 
XXV.   Humus  and  green  manuring. 

XXVI.   Animal  manures.     General  statements. 
XXVII.  Manures  produced  from  various  animals. 
XXVIII.  Care,  preservation,  and  application  of  manure. 
XXIX.   Waste  and  renovation  of  soils. 
XXX.  Rotation  of  crops — General  statements. 
XXXI.   Rotation  of  crops — Systems  of  farming. 
XXXII.   Farm  crops — Classification,  production;  reasons  for  choice. 

XXXIII.  Improvement  of  farm  crops. 

XXXIV.  Wheat — Structure,  composition,  and  varieties. 
XXXV.   Wheat — Culture,  harvesting,  and  preservation. 

XXXVI.  AVheat — Obstructions  to  growth,  preservation,  and  use. 
XXXVII.   Wheat — Production,  marketing,  history. 
XXXVIII.  Corn. 
XXXIX.   Corn. 
XL.   Corn. 
XLI.  Corn. 
XIII.  Rice. 
XLIII.  Oats. 
XLIV.   Barley  and  rye. 
XLV.  Grasses. 
XLVI.  Grasses. 
XLVII.  Clovers. 
XLYIII.   Pastures. 
XLIX.  Silage. 

L.   Forage  crops. 
LI.    Potatoes. 
III.  Potatoes. 

LIII.  Root  crops — Mangels,  beets,  turnips. 
LIV.  Sugar  plants — Sugar  beets. 
LV.  Sugar  plants — Cane,  sorghum,  etc. 
LVI.  Fiber  plants — Cotton. 
LVIL  Fiber  plants— Cotton. 
LVIII.  Fiber  plants — Flax,  hemp,  jute,  ramie,  sisal,  etc.  . 
LIX.  Stimulants — Tobacco,  tea,  coffee. 
LX.  Medicinal  and  aromatic  plants. 
LXI.  Miscellaneous  plants — Buckwheat,  broom  corn,  peanuts,  hops,  eanai- 
gre,  etc. 
[The  order  of  discussion  of  the  different  crops  will  be  the  same  as  in  the  case  of 
wheat.     The  details  to  be  given  for  each  crop  will  vary  with  the  importance  of  the 
crop  in  any  region.] 

26777— No.  127—03 2 


18 

PRACTICUMS    OR    LABORATORY   WORK    IN    AGRONOMY. 
[The  practicums  are  intended  to  cover  33  laboratory  periods,  i.  e.,  m  hours.] 

1.  Determination  of  specific  gravity  of  soils. 

2.  Determination  of  volume  weight  of  soils. 

3.  The  power  of  retaining  moisture  in  the  soil  in  its  highest  degree  of  looseness. 

4.  The  power  of  retaining  moisture  in  the  soil  when  compacted. 

5.  Kate  of  percolation  of  water  through  soils. 
(>.  Kate  of  percolation  of  air  through  soils. 

7.  Effect  of  mulches  upon  evaporation  of  water  from  soils. 

8.  Behavior  of  soils  toward  gases. 

9.  Capillary  attraction  in  soils. 

10.  Determination  of  cohesion  in  soils. 

11.  Mechanical  analysis  of  soils. 

12.  Mechanical  analysis  of  soils. 

13.  Study  of  root  systems  of  principal  crops. 

14.  Study  of  root  systems  of  principal  crops. 

15.  Study  of  root  systems  of  principal  crops. 

16.  Study  of  varieties  of  corn  in  field. 

17.  Scoring  ears  of  corn. 

18.  Study  of  effect  of  fertilizers  on  one  or  more  crops  in  fall. 

19.  Study  of  effect  of  fertilizers  on  one  or  more  crops  in  early  spring. 

20.  Study  of  effect  of  fertilizers  on  one  or  more  crops  near  harvest. 

21.  Study  of  varieties  of  wheat  in  sheaf  and  by  sample. 
'2'2.  Study  of  varieties  of  wheat  in  sheaf  and  by  sample. 

23.  Study  of  varieties  of  wheat  in  field. 

24.  Study  of  varieties  of  oats  or  other  grain  in  sheaf  and  by  sample. 

25.  Study  of  varieties  of  oats  or  other  grain  in  field. 

26.  Study  of  varieties  of  potatoes  by  sample. 

27.  Study  of  varieties  of  potatoes  in  field. 

28.  Study  of  varieties  of  grasses  and  forage  crops  in  field  in  fall. 

29.  Study  of  varieties  of  grasses  and  forage  crops  in  field  in  early  spring. 

30.  Study  of  varieties  of  grasses  and  forage  crops  near  harvest  in  field. 

31.  Study  of  varieties  of  grasses  and  forage  crops  by  sample  and   preparation  of 

abstracts  of  station  experiments  on  climatic  and    soil   conditions  and   upon 
quality  and  yield. 

32.  Study  of  varieties  of  grasses  and  forage  crops    by  sample  and    preparation   of 

abstracts  of  station  experiments   on    climatic  and   soil   conditions  and    upon 
quality  and  yield. 

33.  Study  of   varieties  of  grasses  and  forage  crops   by  sample  and    preparation   of 

abstracts   of   station  experiments  on    climatic  and    soil    conditions  and   upon 
quality  and  yield. 

DETAILED  DESCRIPTION  OF  COURSES  IN  AGRONOMY. 
ALABAMA  POLYTECHNIC  INSTITUTE. 

In  the  Alabama  Polytechnic  Institute  live  four-year  courses  lead  to 
the  degree  of  bachelor  of  science.  These  courses  are  chemistry  and 
agriculture,  civil  engineering,  electrical  and  mechanical  engineering, 
genera]  course,  and  pharmacy.  Elementary  agriculture  (breeds  of  live 
stock)  is  taught  in  the  third  term  of  the  freshman  year  in  all  courses. 
Agriculture    is    an    elective   throughout  the  sophomore   year  of  the 


19 

course  in  civil  engineering,  and  is  required  throughout  the  sophomore 
and  junior  years  of  the  course  in  chemistry  and  agriculture.  This 
last  course,  then,  may  be  considered  the  agricultural  course  of  the 
Polytechnic  Institute.  The  student  in  this  course  devotes  about  one- 
fifth  of  his  time  to  English,  history,  and  economies;  about  two-fifths 
to  pure  science  and  two-fifths  to  applied  sciences  and  technical  training. 

Admission  to  the  four-year  courses  is  by  examination  or  by  certifi- 
cate from  schools  having  approved  courses  of  study.  Applicants  for 
admission  must  be  at  least  15  years  of  age,  and,  if  admitted  by 
examination,  must  be  qualified  to  pass  satisfactory  examinations  in 
(1)  geography  and  history  of  the  United  States;  (2)  English,  including 
grammar,  composition,  reading,  and  English  classics;  and  (3)  mathe- 
matics, including  arithmetic  and  algebra  through  quadratic  equations. 
"Those  applicants  avIio  desire  to  continue  the  stud}T  of  Latin  should 
be  qualified  to  pass  a  satisfactory  examination  in  Latin  grammar  and 
the  first  two  books  of  Caesar  in  addition  to  the  above  subjects." 

The  course  in  agronomy  is  given  during  the  second  and  third  terms 
of  the  sophomore  years.  It  is  preceded  by  a  two-hour  course  in  ani- 
mal husbandry  during  the  third  term  of  the  freshman  year,  a  two-hour 
course  in  dairying  during  the  first  term  of  the  sophomore  year,  and  a 
three-hour  course  of  lectures  and  one  laboratory  exercise  per  week  in 
general  chemistry  during  the  first  term  of  the  sophomore  year,  and  is 
followed  by  courses  in  systematic  and  structural  botany  (lectures  and 
laboratory),  plant  physiology,  and  agricultural  chemistry. 

The  course  in  agricultural  chemistry  is  given  in  the  senior  year  and 
"consists  of  lectures  on  chemistry  in  its  application  to  agriculture 
(two  per-  week,  during  second  and  third  terms),  and  includes  a  thorough 
discussion  of  the  origin,  composition,  and  classification  of  soils,  the 
composition  and  growth  of  plants,  the  sources  of  plant  food  and  how 
obtained,  the  improvement  of  soils,  the  manufacture  and  use  of  fer- 
tilizers, the  chemical  principles  involved  in  the  rotation  of  crops,  the 
feeding  of  live  stock,  and  the  various  operations  carried  on  by  the 
intelligent  and  successful  agriculturist.''  During  the  same  periods  the 
students  do  laboratory  work  in  quantitative  analysis  six  hours  per 
week.  The  principal  reference  books  used  in  agricultural  chemistry 
are  Johnson's  How  Crops  Grow  and  How  Crops  Feed,  Lupton's  Ele- 
mentary Principles  of  Scientific  Agriculture,  Johnson  and  Cameron's 
Elements  of  Agricultural  Chemistry,  Storer's  Agriculture,  scientific 
journals,  reports  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  and 
the  bulletins  and  reports  of  the  various  domestic  and  foreign  agricul- 
tural departments  and  stations.  "The  laboratories,  which  are  open 
from  9  a.  m.  to  5  p.  m.  during  six  days  in  the  week,  are  amply  supplied 
with  everything  necessary  for  instruction  in  chemical  manipulation." 

Instruction  in  agronomy  is  given  by  the  professor  of  agriculture. 
''In  the  second  term  of  the  sophomore  year  the  following  subjects  are 


20 

studied:  Soils  -chemical  and  physical  properties,  defects,  and  means 
of  improvement;  the  control  of  water,  including  means  of  conserving 
moisture  in  times  of  drought;  terracing,  underdrainage,  and  open  and 

hillside  ditches;  objects  and  methods  of  cultivation;  agricultural 
implements;  rotation  of  crops;  and  improvement  of  plants  by  cross- 
ing, selection,  and  culture.  The  third  term  of  the  sophomore  year  is 
devoted  to  the  staple  crops  produced  in  Alabama,  to  forage  plants 

adapted  to  the  South,  and  to  plants  valuable  for  the  renovation  of  soils. 
The  more  important  crops  are  treated  with  reference  to  varieties,  soil 
and  fertilizer  requirements,  methods  of  planting  and  cultivating,  and 
uses."  In  all  classes  there  are  mid-term  examinations  unci  term-end 
examinations. 

Two  hours  per  week  are  devoted  to  lectures,  in  which  the  number 
of  students  ranges  from  lo  to  25,  and  two  afternoons  per  week  are 
given  up  to  farm  practice,  during  which  time  the  classes  are  divided 
into  sections  of  from  <>  to  9  students.  A  part  of  the  field  work  is  con- 
ducted by  the  professor  of  agriculture  and  a  part  is  in  charge  of  an 
assistant  in  agriculture. 

In  every  class  the  student  is  encouraged  to  independent  thought  on 
agricultural  problems  rather  than  to  depend  on  "  rules  of  thumb."  so 
that  he  may  be  prepared  to  adapt  his  practice  in  after  years  to  changed 
conditions  of  soil,  climate,  capital,  market,  etc.  An  effort  is  made  to 
keep  before  the  student  the  difference  between  the  widely  applicable 
principles  on  which  every  rational  system  of  farming  rests  and  the 
details  that  vary  with  changing  conditions.  The  conditions  of  soil. 
climate,  etc.,  prevailing  in  different  parts  of  Alabama  are  kept  con- 
stantly in  view.  As  far  as  limited  time  allows,  attention  is  dire  -ted 
to  agricultural  literature  now  accumulating  so  rapidly  in  this  and  in 
foreign  countries,  to  the  'end  that  in  future  years  the  student  may 
know  where  and  how  to  seek  the  information  that  he  may  need. 

Among  the  reference  books  and  other  literature  used  by  students  in 
agronomy  are  Soils  and  Crops  of  the  Farm,  Morrow  and  Hunt;  For- 
age Plants.  Shaw;  The  Fertility  of  the  Soil,  Roberts;  Corn  Culture, 
Plumb;  The  Physics  of  Agriculture,  King;  other  recent  American 
works  on  agriculture;  bulletins  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  and  of  tin4  experiment  stations  in  the  different  States,  and 
a  number  of  farm  journals. 

Lectures  in  agronomy  are  given  in  the  main  building  in  a  class  room 
provided  with  chairs  and  arm  rests  for  60  students,  two  sides  of  the 
room  being  occupied  by  cases  for  specimens.  Three  small  barns  and 
u  gin  room  serve  partly  as  laboratories  for  students  when  engaged  in 
indoor  work.  Plats  on  the  experiment-station  farm  showing  the  effect 
of  fertilizers,  methods  of  culture,  etc..  and  collections  of  varieties  are 
used  as  object  Lessons  for  students. 


21 

The  following  exhibits  will  give  an  idea  of  the  nature  and  scope  of 
the  examinations  required  in  agronomy  and  of  the  notes  taken  by 
students  in  the  field: 

Exhibit  No.  1. 

EXAMINATIONS  IN  AGRONOMY. 
Examination  in  beginning  agronomy,  second  term,  sophomore  year. 

I.  (a)  In  what  kind  of  weather  and  at  what  time  of  year  can  wetter  soils  be  safely 
plowed  than  under  other  conditions?  Explain,  (b)  Does  a  clay  or  a  sandy  soil 
contain  more  moisture  when  plants  begin  to  wilt?     Explain. 

II.  (a)  Discuss  the  importance  or  nonimportance  of  the  hygroscopic  power  of 
soils,  (b)  Discuss  the  practicability  or  otherwise  of  determining  what  fertilizers  to 
apply  by  an  analysis  of  the  soil. 

III.  Discuss  capillarity  in  the  soil  (direction  of  movement,  favorable  conditions, 
effect  of  slight  rain  after  long  drought,  etc.). 

IV.  Explain  fully  the  effect  of  cultivation  on  the  moisture  in  the  different  layers 
of  soil. 

V.  Discuss  fully  the  size  and  use  of  the  roller  and  its  effects  on  the  soil,  and  state 
conditions  when  it  should  be  used. 

VI.  Discuss  the  general  direction  for  ditches,  methods  of  making  junctions,  and 
draw  cross  section  illustrating  (a)  carrying  canal,  {/>)  shallow  hillside  ditches,  (c) 
open  drainage  ditch. 

VII.  (a)  Discass  grades  for  open  tile  drains,  (b)  Make  drawing  of  homemade 
level  and  show  lx>\v  used  (c)  in  making  a  terrace  and  (d)  in  giving  a  uniform  grade 
to  bottom  of  a  ditch. 

VIII.  Irrigation,  (a)  Give  three  commonest  sources  of  water  in  order  of  cheap- 
ness, (b)  What  advantages  in  furrow  system  over  flooding  system?  (c)  What 
levels  would  head  ditches  follow  and  how  would  nature  of  soil  influence  the  grade 
of  the  rows? 

IX.  Discuss  fall  versus  spring  plowing  in  the  Gulf  States. 

X.  (a)  Give  a  three-year  rotation  lor  cotton  farm,  showing  why  the  crops  should 
follow  in  the  order  stated,  {b)  Outline  a  rotation  that  will  put  half  the  land  in 
cotton  each  year,  (c)  Construct  alive-year  rotation  for  a  mixed  cotton  and  stock 
farm  in  t-he  central  prairie  region  of  Alabama,  stating  when  each  crop  is  planted. 

Examination  in  agronomy  [forage plants),  thirdterm,  sophomore  year. 

I.  (<i )  What  advantages  has  fall  sowing  of  grasses  and  clovers  over  spring  sowing? 
{!)  Mention  three  legumes  that  can  not  be  sown  in  fall  and  give  best  month  for 
sowing  each  of  the  three. 

II.  («)  Compare  early  versus  late  cutting  of  hay.     (b)   When  cut  red  clover? 

III.  Give  means  of  distinguishing  small  grains  of  oats,  wheat,  barley,  and  rye. 

IV.  Discuss  Texas  blue  grass. 
A'.  Discuss  redtop. 

VI.  Discuss  white  clover. 

VII.  Discuss  culture  and  uses  of  rape  plant. 

VII I .  Give  time  of  sowing,  amount  of  seed,  soil  requirements,  and  uses  of  melilotus. 

IX.  Velvet  beans — uses  and  culture. 

X.  Hairy  vetch — discuss  best  mixtures  of  this  with  other  seed  for  given  conditions. 


22 

Exhibit  No.  2. 

STUDENTS'   FIELD  NOTES. 
Notes  on  varieties  of  corn. 


Number  of  cars 
Variety.  and  nubbins 

per  100  stalks. 


ickory  King 


Shaw 


Arnolds 


Experiment 

Station  Yel- 
low. 


Cocke 


Mosby 


Red  Cob. 


Te  n  n  I'ssce 
White. 


Ears. 
18 

90 

62 

Km 


124 


Nubbins. 

12 


22 


36 


36 


30 


Distance  from  ground 
to  lower  ear. 


Aver- 
age dis- 
tance 
from 
ear  to 
ground, 


///.v. 

9 


/•'/.  Ins. 
3       2 


Id 
6 
2 

l.i 
9 
it 
'.» 
0 
3 


■A     r> 

-1       4 
4       0 


Id 
8 
0 
0 
s 
3 
0 
8 
0 


Ft.  Ins 

:;     2 


2  4 
7  5 
5      0 


3  8 
3  8 
3      7 


Ft.  Ins. 

■2      91 


4       0 


Per- 

Tipcov- 

centage 

eted   by 

ol  ears 

shuck. 

below 

■">:  tip 

hori- 

ex- 

zontal 

posed, 

line. 

0. 

25 


28  :<.  » 


81 


Remarks. 


(Stalks  very   small 
1     and  very  early. 

Medium  light  and 
late;  ears  above 
m  e  d  i  u  m  i  n 
length. 

La  t  c  ;  m  ed  i  um 
ears. 

Above  medium 
height;  medium 
early. 

(Small  stalk,  long, 
slender  ears; 
early. 


(Medium  or  late: 
prolific  and  well 
tilled. 


Tall  stalks,  large 
ears:  late  to  me- 
dium. 


(Small   eared;    pro- 
l     lific. 


Notes  on  varieties  of  cotton. 

Cotton.  pMNo.(RowH; 

[Variety:  Dickson  Cluster. 

I.   Bolls,  position.  Jrlnster>  semicluster,  noncluster:  Cluster. 
iTerminal  oc  nonterminal, 

{Number:  2  to  5,  generally  2  to  :'». 
Length:  Medium, 
[nternodes:  Medium. 

II.  Stalk Upper  limbs — Length:  Short. 

Compactness:  Erect. 
Height:   Medium. 

,10. 

Weight |10. 

111). 
II-   Bolls size  (field  estimate).  - 


Point:  Both  acute  and  blunt. 
Adherence, 


23 


IV.  Seed 


Percentage  of  lint,  

r50. 
Weight |50: 

150. 

Shape  and  size,  

Color, 

P'ield  estimate:  Very  early 


V.  Earliness. 


3  best  plants. 


Number  open 

Number  grown  . . 
Number  younger. 


b 

I'D 


6     21 


Average. 
38 

10 


Total 57     35     52       48 

Percentage  of  bolls  open,  79. 
(Selected  plants  (field  estimate);  percentage,  100. 

[3  best  plants  (office), 

Lint  (field  estimate),  


VI.  Prolificacy 
VII 


THE  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF 

ILLINOIS. 

The  college  of  agriculture  is  one  of  the  six  colleges  of  the  University 
of  Illinois.  Candidates  for  admission  to  the  college  of  agriculture  are 
required  to  have  the  same  number  of  high  school  credits  as  candidates 
for  admission  to  other  colleges  of  the  university. 

This  number  is  40  credits  at  the  present  time,  but  it  will  be  increased 
to  42  credits  in  1905.  By  the  term  credit  is  meant  the  work  in  a  sub- 
ject continuously  pursued  with  daily  recitations  through  one  of  the 
three  terms  of  the  high  school  year;  or,  in  other  words,  the  work  of  60 
recitation  periods  of  forty  minutes  each,  or,  the  equivalent  in  labora- 
tory or  other  practice.  Of  the  total  number  of  credits  required  for 
admission,  9  must  be  in  English,  7  in  mathematics,  and  6.  in  science 
and  history.  For  graduation  from  the  college  of  agriculture,  students 
are  required  to  have  obtained  130  university  credits.  By  the  univer- 
sity credit  is  meant  a  class  period  a  week  for  one  semester,  each  class 
period  presupposing  two  hours'  preparation  by  the  student,  or  the 
equivalent  in  laboratory,  shop,  or  field  practice.  The  work  for  79 
credits  is  prescribed  as  follows: 


15  credits  in  agronomy. 

5  credits  in  thremmatology. 

2^  credits  in  animal  husbandry. 

2^  credits  in  dairy  husbandry. 

8  credits  in  horticulture. 

15  credits  in  chemistry. 

5  credits  in  geology. 

Of  the  remaining  56  credits  required  for  graduation  at  least  limust 
be  chosen  in  animal  husbandry  or  dairy  husbandry,  5  in  natural  his- 
tory. 3  in  English,  and  25  in  technical  agriculture.  The  remaining 
credits  ma}T  be  obtained  from  any  subjects  offered  in  the  university 


5  credits  in  botany. 

5  credits  in  zoology. 

2  credits  in  economics. 

6  credits  in  rhetoric. 

5  credits  in  military  science. 

3  credits  in  physical  training. 


>2T 

which  the  student  is  prepared  to  take,  provided  only  that  two  years  of 
foreign  language  must  be  taken  in  the  university  if  not  offered  for 

admission.  A  thesis  is  also  required  for  graduation  for  which  from  5 
to  1Q  credits  will  be  allowed  according  to  the  nature  of  the  subject. 

The  students  in  the  college  of  agriculture  are  given  courses  in  Eng- 
lish or  other  languages  in  the  college  of  literature  and  arts:  courses  in 
chemistry,  physics,  geology,  botany, zoology,  mathematics,  etc..  in  the 
college  of  science;  blacksmithing,  carpentry,  etc..  in  the  college  of 
engineering,  the  work  of  the  college  of  agriculture  being  devoted  to 
the  subject  of  agronomy,  animal  husbandry,  dairy  husbandry,  horti- 
culture, and  veterinary  science,  of,  in  other  words,  to  the  subjects  in 
technical  agriculture. 

In  the  department  of  agronomy  15  courses  are  offered  (not  including 
the  courses  in  farm  mechanics),  which  are  described  briefly  in  the  fol- 
lowing excerpts  from  the  college  catalogue: 

The  semester,  the  days,  and  the  class  period  or  periods  during  which  each  course 
is  given,  and  the  number  of  credits  per  semester  for  which  the  course  counts  are 
shown  after  each  course,  as  follows:  The  semester  is  indicated  by  the  Roman  numer- 
als I,  II;  the  days,  by  the  initial  letters  of  the  days  of  the  week;  the  class  period 
or  periods  (of  which  then'  are  nine  each  day,  numbered  consecutively  from  1  to  9), 
by  Arabic  figures;  and  the  amount  of  credit,  by  Arabic  figures  in  parentheses.  For 
example,  the  abbreviations  I;  M.,  W.,  F. ;  1;  (3)  are  to  be  read  first  semester,  Mon- 
day, Wednesday,  and  Friday,  first  period,  three  credits. 

1.  Drainage  and  irrigation. — Location  of  drains  and  irrigation  conduits,  leveling, 
digging,  laying  tile  and  pipes,  filling,  and  subsequent  care;  cost  of  construction  and 
efficiency;  sewers  for  the  disposal  of  waste  water  from  farm  buildings  and  the  sew- 
age from  kitchen  and  toilet;  farm  waterpipeSj  pipe  and  thread  cutting.  Class  work, 
laboratory  and  field  practice.     I;  first  half ;  daily;  (>,  7;   (22). 

5.  Farm  crops — : Quality  and  improvement. — Judgingof  corn  ore  Exhibit  3,  p.  .')0)and 
oats,  wheat  grading,  methods  of  improving  quality,  shrinkage  of  grain,  care  of  stored 
crops  to  prevent  injury  and  loss.  Class  and  laboratory  work.  I;  first  half;  daily; 
6,  T  (or  3,  4);  (2*). 

6.  Fa nn  crops — Germination  and  growth, — Vitality  and  germination  of  seeds,  pres- 
ervation of  seeds,  methods  of  seeding;  conditions  of  plant  growth;  peculiarities  of 
the  different  agricultural  plants  in  respect  to  structure,  habits,  and  requirements  for 
successful  growth;  enemies  to  plant  growth;  weeds  and  weed  seeds,  their  identifica- 
tion and  methods  of  destruction;  fungus  diseases,  such  as  smut  of  oats  and  wheat, 
and  blight,  scab,  and  rot  of  potatoes,  methods  of  prevention;  insects  injurious  to 
farm  crops  and  how  to  combat  them.  Class  room,  laboratory,  and  field  work.  II; 
first  half;  daily;  6,  7;  (2£). 

7.  Special  crops.— A  special  study  of  farm  crops  taken  up  under  an  agricultural 
outline — grain  crops,  root  crops,  forage  crops,  sugar  and  fiber  crops — their  history 
and  distribution  over  the  earth,  methods  of  culture,  cost  of  production,  consumption 

of  products,  and  residues  or  by-products.  Class  work,  supplemented  by  practical  held 
work  and  a  study  of  the  results  of  previous  experiments,  such  as  detasseling  corn, 
injury  to  roots  of  corn  by  cultivation,  selection  and  breeding  of  corn  and  other  crops, 
with  special  reference  to  practices  which  apply  directly  to  Illinois  conditions, 
students  will  have  an  excellent  opportunity  to  study  the  work  of  the  Agricultural 
experiment  station.     [I;  daily;  1,2;   (5).     Required:  Agronomy  2,  5,  6. 

8.  Field  experiments-  Special  work  by  the  students  conducted  in  the  field.  This 
work  consists  in  testing  varieties  of  com,  oats,  wheat,  potatoes,  and  other  farm  crops; 


25 

methods  of  planting  corn,  seeding  grains,  grasses,  and  other  forage  crops;  culture  of 
corn,  potatoes,  and  sugar  beets;  practice  in  treating  oats  and  wheat  for  smut  and 
potatoes  for  scab  and  studying  the  effects  upon  the  crops:  combating  chinch  bugs 
and  other  injurious  insects.     Other  practical  experiments  may  be  arranged  with  the 

instructor.  Special  opportunities  will  be  given  to  advanced  students  of  high  class 
standing  to  take  up  experiments,  under  assignment  and  direction  of  the  instructor 
in  farm  crops,  on  certain  large  farms  in  the  State,  arrangements  having  been  made 
with  the  farm  owners  or  managers  for  such  experiments.  II,  second  half,  and  sum- 
mer vacation;  daily;  arrange  time;  (2j  to  5). 
Kequired:  Agronomy  7,  12. 

9.  Soil  physics  awl  management. — This  course  is  designed  to  prepare  the  student 
better  to  understand  the  effects  of  the  different  methods  of  treatment  of  soils  and  the 
influence  of  these  methods  upon  moisture,  texture,  aeration,  fertility,  and  produc- 
tion. It  comprises  a  study  of  the  origin  of  soils,  of  the  various  methods  of  soil  for- 
mation, of  their  mechanical  composition  and  classification;  also  soil  moisture  and 
means  for  conserving  it,  soil  texture  as  affecting  capillarity,  osmosis,  and  diffusion, 
as  affected  by  plowing,  harrowing,  cultivating,  rolling,  and  cropping;  of  the  wasting 
of  soils  by  washing;  fall  or  spring  plowing  and  drainage  as  affecting  moisture,  tem- 
peratures, and  root  development.  The  work  of  the  class  room  is  supplemented  1  >y 
laboratory  work,  comprising  the  determination  of  such  questions  as  specific  gravity, 
relative  gravity,  water-holding  capacity  and  capillary  power  of  various  soils;  also  the 
study  of  the  physical  effects  of  different  systems  of  rotation  and  of  continuous  crop- 
ping with  various  crops,  and  the  mechanical  analysis  of  soils.     I;   daily;   1,  2;  (5). 

Required:  Physics  1,  3  (first  semester's  work),  and  Agronomy,  2. 

10.  Special  problems  in  soil  physics. — This  work  is  intended  for  students  wishing  to 
specialize  further  in  the  study  of  the  physical  properties  of  soils,  and  will  include  the 
determinaton  by  electrical  methods  of  the  temperature,  moisture,  and  soluble  salt 
content  of  various  soils  under  actual  field  conditions;  effect  of  different  depths  of 
plowing,  cultivation,  and  rolling  on  soil  conditions;  effect  of  different  methods  of 
preparing  seed  beds;  the  physical  questions  involved  in  the  formation  and  redemp- 
tion of  the,  so-called  "alkali,"  "barren"  or  "dead  dog"  soils,  and  of  other  peculiar 
soils  of  Illinois.     II,.  or  summer  vacation;  daily;  arrange  time;  (5). 

Required:  Agronomy  9. 

11.  Soil  bacteriology. — A  study  of  the  morphology  and  activities  of  the  bacteria  which 
are  <•<  >nnected  with  the  elatx  (ration  <  >f  plant  food  in  the  soil,  < >r  which  induce  chang< ss  i  >f 
vital  importance  to  agriculture,  with  regard  to  the  effects  of  cropping  and  tillage  upon 
these  organisms,  and  with  special  reference  to  the  study  of  those  forms  which  are 
concerned  with  the  formation  of  nitrates  and  nitrites  in  the  soil  and  with  the  accumu- 
lation of  nitrogen  bv  leguminous  crops.  Class  room  and  laboratory  work.  II;  daily; 
6,  7;  (5). 

Required:  Botany  5;  Chemistry  3b,  4. 

12.  Fertilizers,  rotations,  andf  rtility. — The  influence  of  fertility,  natural  or  supplied, 
upon  the  yield  of  various  crops;  the  effect  of  different  crops  upon  the  soil  and  upon 
succeeding  crops;  different  rotations  and  the  ultimate  effect  of  different  systems  of 
farming  upon  the  fertility  and  productive  capacity  of  soils.  The  above  will  be  sup- 
plemented by  a  laboratory  study  of  manures  and  fertilizers,  their  composition  and 
their  agricultural  and  commercial  value;  of  soils  cropped  continuously  with  different 
crops  and  with  a  series  of  crops;  of  the  fertility  of  soils  of  different  types,  or  classes 
from  different  sections  of  Illinois.     II;  daily;  1,  2;  (5). 

Required:  Chemistry  13;  Agronomy  6,  9. 

13.  Investigation  of  the  fertility  of  special  soils. — This  course  is  primarily  designed  to 
enable  the  student  to  study  the  fertility  of  those  special  soils  in  which  he  may  be 
particularly  interested,  and  to  become  familiar  with  the  correct  principles  and 
methods  of  such  investigations.     It  will  include  the  determination  of  the  nature  and 


26 

quantity  of  the  elements  <>t*  fertility  in  the  soils  investigated,  the  effect  upon  various 
crops  of  differenl  fertilizers  added  t<»  the  soils,  as  determined  by  pol  cultures,  and, 
where  possible,  by  plat  experiments.  This  work  will  be  supplemented  by  a  system- 
atic study  of  the  work  of  experiment  stations  and  experimenters  along  these  lines  of 
investigations.  I,  II:  arrange  time;  (2  to  5). 
Required:  Agronomy  12. 

14.  History  of  agriculture.— Its  development  and  practice,  with  particular  regard  to 
the  agriculture  of  those  nations  which  have  contributed  most  to  agricultural  progress, 
including  a  sketch  of  the  earliest  agricultural  practices  as  illustrated  by  the  agricul- 
ture of  the  Egyptians,  the  Jews,  the  Chinese,  and  other  ancient  peoples;  followed  by 
a  study  of  the  development  of  Roman  agriculture  and  its  influences  upon  the  practices 
in  other  nations;  a  consideration  of  the  beginnings  and  systems  of  British  agriculture 
with  regard  to  their  influence  upon  social  conditions;  and,  finally,  the  development 
of  modern  agriculture  with  special  reference  to  that  of  England,  Germany,  France, 
and  the  United  States.     I,  second  half;  daily;  3;  (2^). 

15.  Comparative  agriculture. — Influence  of  locality,  climate,  soil,  race,  customs,  laws, 
religion,  etc.,  upon  the  agriculture  of  a  country,  and  incidentally  upon  its  people. 
One  crop  only,  and  its  effect,  as  rice;  Indian  corn  in  American  agriculture  and  affairs. 
Varying  conditions  under  which  the  same  crop  may  be  produced,  as  wheat.  Statis- 
tical agriculture.  Influence  of  machinery  and  of  land  titles,  whether  resting  in  the 
government,  in  landlord,  or  in  occupant.  Relation  of  agriculture  to  other  industries 
and  to  the  body  politic.     Lectures.     II;  F;  4;    (1). 

Required:  Two  years  of  University  work. 

16.  German  agricultural  readings. — A  study  of  the  latest,  agricultural  experiments 
and  investigations  published  in  the  German  language,  special  attention  being  given 
to  soils  and  crops.  The  current  numbers  of  German  journals  of  agricultural  science 
will  be  required  and  used  as  a  text.  This  course  is  designed  to  give  the  student  a 
broader  knowledge  of  the  recent  advances  in  scientific;  agriculture,  and,  incidentally, 
it  will  aid  him  in  making  a  practical  application  of  a  foreign  language.  It  is  recom- 
mended that  it  be  taken  after  Agronomy  12.     II;   M.,  W.;  4;  (2). 

Required:  Two  years'  work  in  German. 

17.  Special  work  in  <h-<ini<t<i<j  and  machinery. — Students  may  arrange  for  special  work 
in  any  of  the  lines  covering  drainage  or  farm  machinery,  either  in  the  second 
semester  or  the  summer.      {'2\  to  5.) 

18.  Investigation  and  thesis. — This  course  varies  in  the  subject  matter  of  study, 
according  to  the  department  in  which  theses  are  written.  The  work  is  under  the 
direction  of  the  head  of  the  department.     I,  II;  arrange  time:   (5  t<>  LO). 

The  offices,  class  rooms,  and  laboratories  of  the  department  of 
agronomy  are  housed  in  the  agricultural  building  (PL  I),  which  was 
recently  completed  at  a  cost  of  $150,000.  It  consists  of  four  separate 
structures  built  around  an  open  court  and  connected  by  corridors. 
The  main  building  is  248  feet  long  and  from  50  to  loo  feet  wide,  and 
three  stories  high.  The  other  three  buildings  are  45  by  116  feet,  and 
two  stories  high.  These  buildings  are  of  stone  and  brick,  roofed  with 
slate,  and  contain,  all  told,  113  rooms  and  a  total  floor  space  of  nearly  2 
acres.  An  adjacent  glass  structure  includes  a  photographic  laboratory 
and  a  pot-culture  laboratory  for  the  department  of  agronomy.  Sev- 
eral acres  of  land  near  to  the  agricultural  buildings  are  used  for 
instruction  in  agronomy,  chiefly  by  means  of  student  experiments. 

Aside  from  the  work  in  farm  mechanics,  the  department  of  agronomy 
includes  four  principal   divisions,  viz,  soil  fertility,  soil  physics,  soil 


bacteriology,   and   farm  crops.     Several    courses  of    instruction    are 

offered  in  each  of  these  divisions,  and  in  each  case  instruction  is  given 
by  the  laboratory  method,   as   well  as   by  text-books,    lectures,  and 

reference  readings.  Two  laboratories  are  provided  for  the  work  in 
soil  fertility.  One  of  these  is  used  for  the  analysis  of  soils,  fertilizer-, 
and  manures;  for  the  determination  of  the  elements  of  plant  food 
contained  in  plants  and  plant  products,  and  for  the  preparation  of  soils 
for  pot  culture  experiments,  which  include  the  use  of  sand  cultures, 
water  cultures,  and  soil  cultures,  with  the  addition  or  elimination  of 
any  or  all  of  the  different  elements  of  plant  food  (PI.  III.  tig.  1). 
The  second  is  the  pot-culture  laboratory  (PI.  III.  fig.  2).  which  is 
located  in  the  greenhouse  near  the  agricultural  building,  and  in  which 
the  pot-culture  experiments  are  carried  on  by  the  student  as  a  part 
of  his  regular  laboratory  practice.  The  soil  fertility  analytical  labora- 
tory is  provided  with  desks  for  18  students*  places,  each  desk  being 
made  double,  so  that  by  working  two  sections  36  students  can  be 
accommodated.  All  apparatus  necessary  for  the  analysis  of  soils,  fer- 
tilizers, etc.  is  provided,  including  analytical  balances,  digestion 
furnaces,  distillation  apparatus,  glass  and  porcelain  ware.  etc.  The 
laboratory  is  provided  with  a  hood  under  which  operations  which 
give  olf  poisonous  or  disagreeable  fumes  or  odors  are  performed.  The 
desks  are  piped  for  gas.  compressed  air.  vacuum  and  water,  and  pro- 
vided with  sinks  and  waste  pipes.  The  fertility  pot-culture  labora- 
tory is  provided  with  suitable  tables  and  with  several  hundred  glazed 
pots  of  different  sizes  suitable  for  pot-culture  experiments.  Most 
of  the  water  used  in  the  pot-culture  experiments  is  drawn  from  a 
400-barrel  cistern,  which  is  kept  full  of  exceedingly  pure  soft  water 
collected  from  the  slate  roof  of  the  agricultural  building,  which  is  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  distant  from  the  central  heating  plant  of  the  uni- 
versity, and  hence  is  very  free  from  coal  smoke,  etc..  from  the  chim- 
neys. For  special  purposes,  distilled  water  i-  provided  and.  when 
necessary,  nitrogen-free  water  is  used. 

The  soil  physics  laboratory  (PI.  IV,  tig.  1)  is  provided  with  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  desks  to  allow  21  students  to  work  at  one  time,  and, 
by  running  two  sections,  48  students  can  be  accommodated.  This 
laboratory  is  well  equipped  with  the  apparatus  necessary  for  studying 
the  physics  of  soil,  including  centrifugal  machines  and  shaking  appa- 
ratus used  in  mechanical  analyses  (tig  1),  microscopes,  balances, 
compacting  apparatus,  apparatus  for  determining  the  water  content, 
absorptive  capacity,  water-holding  power,  and  specific  gravity  of  soils; 
several  electrical  instruments  for  the  determination  of  temperature. 
moisture,  and  soluble  salt -content  of  soils:  a  3-horsepower  electric 
motor  with  a  line  shaft,  counter  shaft,  belting,  etc.:  elutriators.  fur- 
naces, sieves,  and  much  other  general  apparatus.  The  laboratory  is 
also  provided  with  a  side  table,  hood,  large  drying  oven,  and  store- 


28 

room.  For  the  work  in  farm  drainage  the  department  of  agronomv 
is  provided  with  several  surveyors'  leveling  instruments,  chains,  and 
tapelines,  and  all  necessary  tools  for  running  ditches  and  Laying  tile. 

Students  are  given  a  considerable  amount  of  practice  in  surveying 
systems  of  drainage,  running  levels,  digging  ditches,  and  laying  tile. 
Two  laboratories  are  provided  for  the  study  of  soil  bacteriology, 
although  one  of  these  is  also  used  during  part  of  the  year  for  begin- 
ning students  in  general  bacteriology.  Thirty-two  student  places 
are  provided  for.     The  laboratory  is  equipped  with  incubators,  micro- 


Fig.  1.— Centrifuge,  .shaker,  and  electric  motor  used  in  mechanical  analysis  of  soils. 

scopes,  autoclaves  and  other  sterilizing  apparatus,  balances,  and  other 
materials  needed  for  bacteriological  work,  including  staining  solutions, 
chemicals,  media,  etc.  The  hood  tables  and  the  tile-to])  side  tables 
are  provided  with  steam  baths,  gas,  air.  vacuum,  and  water  pipes, 
and  waste  sinks.  Adjoining  the  laboratory  are  a  store  room,  an 
incubating  room,  and  an  animal  room  with  cages  for  keeping  animals 
under  experiment. 
Two  laboratories  are  provided  for  the  work  in  farm  crops  (PI.  IV, 

fig  2),  one  of   which  has   :;<i    student    places,  and    the  other  24    places. 


U.  S.  Dept  of  Agr.,  Bui.  127,  Office  of  Expt.  Stations 


Plate  I, 


U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bui.  127,  Office  of  Expt.  Stations 


Plate  II. 


Fig.  1  .—University  of  Illinois— Class  in  Agronomy  Studying  Root  Development 

of  Corn. 


Fig.  2.— University  of  Illinois— Class  in  Agronomy  Collecting  Samples  of  Soil. 


U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bui.  127,  Office  of  Expt.  S+atii 


Plate  III, 


Fig.  1.— University  of  Illinois— Soil  Fertility  Laboratory  for  Analysis  and 
Synthesis  of  Soils  and  Fertilizers. 


Fig.  2.— University  of  Illinois— Class  in  Agronomy  in  Pot  Culture  Laboratory. 


U.  S.  Dept    :-'  Agr.,  By.  II-    Off  ce  cf  Exo:.  Stations. 


Plate  IV. 


Fig.  1  .—University  of  Illinois— Soil  Physics  Laboratory. 


Fig.  2.— University  of  Illinois— Farm  Crops  Seed  Laboratory 


29 

making  it  possible  to  have  60  students  in  farm  crops  at  work  at  one 
time.  These  desks  are  provided  with  a  large  number  of  drawers  for 
different  samples  of  grains  and  equipped  with  small  microscopes,  tape 
measures,  scales,  germinating  apparatus,  etc.  The  laboratory  is  pro- 
vided with  one  side  case,  containing  253  drawers  for  samples  of  corn 
of  ten  ears  each,  used  in  instruction  in  corn  judging  and  the  study  of 
varieties  of  corn.  There  are  a  large  number  of  tilting  bins,  holding 
from  1  to  3  bushels  of  corn,  and  a  large  wall  case  contains  six  upright 
bins,  reaching  nearly  to  the  ceiling  of  the  room,  each  of  several 
bushels'  capacity,  used  for  holding  a  supply  of  some  of  the  stock  grains 
used  in  the  farm  crops  work.  There  are  six  large  herbarium  cases  for 
preserving  specimens  of  different  farm  crops  and  of  weeds  injurious 
to  farm  crops.  There  is  also  a  cabinet  provided  with  a  large  number 
of  cases  for  a  collection  of  insects  injurious  to  farm  crops.  Adjoining 
the  farm  crops  student  laboratory  is  a  large  germinating  room,  about 
7  feet  wide  and  20  feet  long,  with  wide  shelving  around  the  walls, 
extending  from  near  the  floor  to  the  ceiling,  giving  sufficient  space  for 
several  hundred  germinators.  This  room  is  provided  with  steam  coils 
with  valves  so  arranged  that  any  number  of  coils  can  be  used  and  the 
temperature  of  the  room  regulated  as  may  be  desired.  A  large  elec- 
tric incubator  is  also  provided  for  special  germination  studies.  Besides 
the  laboratory  practice  the  students  in  farm  crops  carry  on  plat 
experiments  under  field  conditions,  several  acres  being  provided  for 
this  purpose  and  hand  tools  being  provided  for  student  use. 

Among  the  text-books  and  reference  books  most  largely  used  in  the 
course  in  soil  fertility  are  Aikman's  Manures  and  the  Principles  of 
Manuring,  Voorhees's  Fertilizers,  Roberts's  Fertility  of  the  Land, 
Johnson's  How  Crops  Feed,  Snyder's  Chemistry  of  Soils  and  Fertili- 
zers, Storer's  Agriculture,  Liebig's  Agricultural  Chemistry,  Lawes 
and  Gilbert's  Reports  on  Agricultural  Investigations  at  Rothamsted, 
and  the  bulletins  and  reports  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  and  of  the  various  State  experiment  stations. 

Among  the  books  used  in  soil  physics  are  The  Soil  and  The  Physies 
of  Agriculture,  by  King;  Rocks  and  Soils,  by  Stockbridge;  Origin 
and  Nature  of  Soils."  by  Shaler:  and  Land  Drainage,  by  Miles. 

Books  used  in  soil  bacteriology  are  Manual  of  Bacteriology,  by 
Sternberg;  Conn's  Agricultural  Bacteriology;  and  Fischer's  Structure 
and  Functions  of  Bacteria. 

Among  the  books  used  in  the  stud}T  of  farm  crops  are  Johnson's 
How  Crops  Grow;  Beal's  Grasses  of  North  America;  Corn  Plants,  by 
Sargent;  Plant  Breeding,  by  Bailey;  Weeds  and  How  to  Eradicate 
Them,  by  Shaw,  and  Storer's  Agriculture. 

In  addition  to  these  books  the  library  of  the  University  of  Illinois 

"Twelfth  Annual  Report  of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  Part  I — Geology,  pp. 
213-345. 


30 


contains  several  hundred  volumes,  journals,  and  pamphlets,  in  English, 
German,  and  French,  relating  in  part  or  wholly  to  the  subject  of  agron- 
omy. These  are  accessible  to  all  of  the  students  in  the  department,  but 
are  used  more  largely  by  students  engaged  in  research  work. 

Laboratory,  lecture,  or  Held  notebooks  are  required  to  be  kept  by 
students  in  all  courses  in  agronomy,  and  in  most  courses  students  are 
required  to  prepare  two  or  three  essays  of  from  1,000  to  5,000  words 
each  during  the  semester.  As  a  rule,  preliminary  examinations  are 
given  at  the  end  of  each  month  and  a  final  examination  at  the  close  of 
the  course.  The  student's  standing  or  grade  for  the  semester's  work  is 
based  upon  four  factors:  (1)  Class  records  of  recitations;  (2)  prelimi- 
nary examinations  and  written  exercises;  (3)  lecture,  laboratory,  or 
field  notebooks;  and  (4)  final  examinations. 

Dining  the  past  year  about  200  students  took  work  in  courses  in 
agronomy.  Advanced  classes  numbered  from  12  to  25  students  and 
lower  classes  contained  from  30  to  75  students.  Excursions  arc  occa- 
casionally  made  by  classes  to  examine  soils,  inspect  drainage  systems, 
to  visit  fields  and  other  places  of  special  interest  and  importance  to 
the  work  of  the  classes. 

Aside  from  the  help  of  several  student  assistants,  there  are  six- 
regular  instructors  in  the  department  of  agronomy.  One  offers  courses 
in  soil  fertility,  another  in  soil  physics,  a  third  in  farm  drainage  and 
irrigation,  a  fourth  in  soil  bacteriology,  and  two  other  instructors 
give  courses  in  farm  crops. 

ExniBiT  No.  3. 

JUDGING  CORN. 

Students  in  farm  crops,  when  judging  corn,  are  provided  with  stiff 
cardboard  covers  9  by  4f  inches,  in  which  special  blank  forms  for 
scoring  may  be  fastened.  On  the  inside  of  the  front  coyer  is  pasted 
Form  A,  giving  standards  for  varieties,  explanation  of  points,  and 
rules  to  be  used  in  judging.  On  the  inside  of  the  back  coyer  and 
fastened  to  it  by  brass  paper  fasteners  are  forms  \\  and  C.  Form  B 
is  used  by  the  student  in  scoring  a  single  ear  of  corn,  and  Form  C  for 
recording  the  corrected  scores  of  several  ears. 

Form  A. — Directions  for  scoring. 

STANDARDS    FOB    VARIETIES. 


Name  of  variety. 

Length  of 
car. 

<  iireumfer- 

ence  of 

ear. 

Proportion 

of  corn  to 
cob. 

Reid  yellow  Dent 

Inches. 
10 

it 

10 

in 
9 
8.5 

Ki  11 

Tnchi  8. 

7 

7 

7.5 

7 

7 

7.r>-x 

Per  cent, 
88 

90 

90 

88 

Boone  County  White 

86 

90 

88 

General  

88 

31 

EXPLANATION    OF    POINTS. 

1.  Uniformity:  Uniform  shape,  size,  indentation,  and  type  of  ears. 

2.  Shape:  Shape  of  ear  should  conform  to  variety  type,  usually  cylindrical,  i.  e.,  of 
equal  circumference  from  butt  to  tip. 

3.  Color:  Free  from  mixture  and  true  to  variety  color. 

4.  Market  condition:  Ripeness,  soundness,  ear  firm  and  well  matured. 

5.  Tip:  Kernels  filled  over  the  tip  in  regular  manner. 

6.  Butt:  Kernels  swelled  about  ear  stalk,  leaving  deep  depression  when  shank  is 
removed. 

7.  Kernel,  uniformity:  Uniform  shape,  size,  and  conformity  to  variety  type. 

8.  Kernel,  shape:  Wedge  shaped,  straight  edges,  and  large  germ. 

9.  Length :  Varies  with  the  variety,  measure. 

10.  Circumference:  Varies  with  the  variety,  measure. 

11.  Space:  Furrow  between  tops  of  rows  of  kernels. 

L2.  Proportion:  Proportion  of  weight  of  grain  to  cob.     Weight  varies  with  variety. 

RULES   TO    BE   USED    IN   JUDGING. 

1.  The  deficiency  and  excess  in  length  of  all  ears  not  conforming  to  the  standard 
for  the  variety  shall  be  added  together,  and  for  every  2  inches  thus  obtained  a  cut 
of  one  point  shall  be  made.  In  determining  length,  measure  from  the  extreme  tip 
to  the  extreme  butt. 

2.  The  deficiency  and  excess  in  circumference  of  all  ears  not  conforming  to  the 
standard  of  the  variety  shall  be  added  together,  and  for  every  4  inches  thus  ob- 
tained a  cut  of  one  point  shall  be  made.  Measure  the  circumference  at  one-third 
the  distance  from  the  butt  to  the  tip  of  the  ear. 

3.  In  determining  the  proportion  of  corn  to  cob,  weigh  every  alternate  ear  in  the 
exhibit.  Shell  and  weigh  the  cobs,  and  subtract  from  weight  of  ears,  giving  the 
weight  of  corn.  Divide  the  weight  of  corn  by  total  weight  of  ears,  giving  the  per 
cent  of  corn.  For  each  per  cent  short  of  standard  for  the  variety  a  half-point  cut 
shall  be  made. 

4.  In  judging  color,  a  red  cob  in  white  corn,  or  a  white  cob  in  yellow  corn,  shall 
be  cut  ten  points.  For  one  or  two  mixed  kernels,  a  cut  of  one-fourth  point;  for  three 
or  four  mixed  kernels,  a  cut  of  one-half  point;  for  five  mixed  kernels,  a  three-fourths- 
point  cut;  or  for  six  or  more  mixed  kernels,  a  one-point  cut  shall  be  made.  Ker- 
nels missing  from  the  ear  shall  be  counted  as  mixed.  Difference  in  shade  of  color, 
as  light  or  dark  red,  white  or  cream  color,  must  be  scored  according  to  variety 
characteristics. 

5.  To  determine  the  cut  for  space,  the  following  rules  can  be  applied  if  combined 
with  the  judgment  of  the  student:  For  less  than  one  thirty-second  inch,  no  cut;  for 
a  furrow  one  thirty-second  to  one-sixteenth  inch,  one-half  point;  for  more  than  one- 
sixteenth  inch,  cut  one  point.  The  looseness  of  kernels  on  the  cob  does  not  apply 
to  space,  but  to  maturity.  The  furrows  or  angle  between  the  tops  of  the  rows  of 
kernels  is  the  space  between  rows. 


Date. , . 

Number  of  exhibit,  — — 
Name  of  variety, . 

Length,  . 

Circumference, . 

Proportion  grain  to  cob, 


32 

Form   B.  —  For  individual  sampte. 

STUDENT'S  REPORT  JUDGING  CORN. 
STANDARD  OF   vaKIKTV 


Points. 

student's     Corrected 
score.           score. 

Instruct- 
or's score. 

10 
5 
10 

10 

5 
5 

10 

lii 
20 

3.  Color 

5.  Tips 

(i.   Butts 

9.  Length 





■ 

Total 

100 



1           1 

REMARKS. 


Form  ( 

—For  several 

sampl 

IS. 

Points. 

1 

'2 

" 

" 

3 

4 

;; 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

" 

11 

'■'■ 

12 

-• 

13 

11 

- 

it; 
_ 

17 

.. 

:: 

L8 

19 

20 

2, 

22 

23 

24 

25 

10 

2.  Shape  Of  ear 

5  . . 
10    .. 

5  .. 
10    .. 

5   .. 

.r)    . . 

5  . . 
10  .. 

io :: 

•jo   .. 

6.   Filling  out  butts 

9.  Length 

12.  Proportion  of  corn  to  cob 

Total 

100  L. 

.. 

Exhibit  No.  4. 

STUDENT' S  LABORATORY  BLANKS  IN  SOIL  PHYSICS. 

Experiment  No.  1. 

MOISTURE — CAPILLARY. 

Use  sand,  clay,  loam,  and  gravel  as  provided. 

1.  Weigh  carefully  four  drying  pans. 

2.  Place  in  one  of  each  about  L00  grams  of  each  of  the  above  soils. 
:;.   Weigh  the  pan  and  soil  carefully. 

1.  Spread  oul  the  soil  to  a  thin  layer  by  shaking,  and  dry  Eor  twenty-tour  hours  at 
room  temperature. 

5.  Weigh  and  repeal  the  drying  and  weighing  at  intervals  of  four  to  five  hours 
until  a  nearly  constant  weight  is  obtained. 

The  loss  «»!'  weight  represents  the  amount  of  capillary  water. 

Amount   of  capillary   water  found   was:  Sand,  ;  clay, ;   loam, ; 

gravel, . 

Define  capillary  water: . 


33 


Experiment  No.  2. 

DETERMINATION    OF    HYGROSCOPIC    MOISTURE. 

Use  the  air-dried  soils  from  experiment  No.  1. 

1.  Place  about  10  grams  of  the  air-dried  soil  in  a  tared  porcelain  crucible  (a) . 

2.  Weigh  the  soil  and  crucible  (b)  and  heat  in  the  air  bath  at  100  to  110°  C.  for 
1  hour. 

3.  Cool  in  a  desiccator  and  weigh  rapidly  to  prevent  absorption  of  moisture  from 
the  air. 

4.  Heat  for  a  shorter  time,  cool,  and  weigh,  repeating  until  the  weight  (c)  becomes 
constant. 

Calculation:  The  loss  of  weight,  or  b — c,  equals  the  amount  of  hygroscopic  water 
in  the  sample  taken. 
c  —  a  equals  the  weight  of  water-free  soil. 

}j c 

Therefore  — —  =  per  cent  of  hygroscopic  water  expressed  on  the  basis  of  water-free 

soil. 

The  per  cent  of  hygroscopic  water  found  was:   Sand, ;  clay, ;  loam, 

;  gravel, . 


Define  hygroscopic  water: . 

From  the  results  obtained  in  experiments  1  and  2  compute  the  percentage  of  cap- 
illary and  total  water  in  the  soil,  expressed  on  the  basis  of  water-free  soil. 

Total  water  content  is   (percentage) .   Sand,  ;   clay,  ;   loam,  ; 

gravel, . 


In  addition  to  the  capillary  and  hygroscopic  water,  the  soil  may  contain,  under 
some  conditions,  as  immediately  after  a  rain,  a  certain  amount  of  free  or  gravita- 
tional water.  This  portion  of  the  soil  water  is  acted  upon  by  the  force  of  gravity, 
which  causes  it  to  percolate  downward  to  the  level  of  the  ground  water. 

Experiment  No.  3. 
hilgakd's  flocculation  experiment. 

Two  students  will  work  conjointly  in  this  experiment. 

1.  Into  each  of  four  beakers  place  about  1  gram  of  clay  and  add  200  cubic  centi- 
meters of  water. 

2.  To  beaker- 

No.  1  add  0.2  gram  calcium  hydrate =0.1  per  cent  solution. 
No.  2  add  1  gram  calcium  hydrate=0.5  per  cent  solution. 
No.  3  add  2  grams  calcium  hydrate =1  per  cent  solution. 
No.  4  add  0  gram  calcium  hydrate =Control. 

3.  With  a  stirring  rod  mix  the  contents  of  each  beaker  thoroughly  and  then  place 
a  sample  of  each  in  a  Nessler's  cylinder  and  whirl  in  the  centrifuge  at  the  lowest 
speed  and  note  the  time  required  to  completely  precipitate  each  solution. 

4.  Pour  the  contents  of  each  cylinder  back  into  the  respective  beaker,  stir  thor- 
oughly and  set  aside,  observing  occasionally  to  determine  the  time  required  for  com- 
plete sedimentation  in  each  case. 

Compare  in  each  case  the  cylinders  and  beakers  containing  the  different  strengths 
of  solution  and  the  control  and  tabulate  the  results  in  the  space  below. 


Time  to  cen- 
trifugate. 

Time  to 
sediment. 

1  per  cent  solution 

Control 

Explain  how  the  lime  acts  and  clarifies  the  water: 

26777— No.  127—03 3 


84 
Experina  ni  No.  4- 

EFFECTS   OF    LIME   <>N    PLASTIC   soils. 

Two  students  will  work  together  as  in  experiment  No.  '•>. 

1.  Weigh  out  five  50-gram  samples  of  the  clay  soil. 

2.  To  sample — 

No.  1  add  0. 5  per  cent  calcium  hydrate. 
No.  2  add  1  per  cent  calcium  hydrate. 
No.  3  add  5  per  cent  calcium  hydrate. 
No.  4  add  Id  per  cent  calcium  hydrate. 
No.  5  add  no  calcium  hydrate. 

3.  Mix  each  sample  thoroughly  in  a  soil  pan.  and  add  just  enough  water  to  make 
plastic. 

4.  Fill  into  molds  in  the  form  of  sticks,  using  care  to  compress  all  samples  to  the 
same  degree,  and  transfer  to  the  oven  and  hake  at  110°  C.  for  4  to  5  hours. 

5.  Test  the  strength  of  each  stick  of  baked  clay  by  supporting  upon  blocks  and 
suspending  weights  until  the  clay  is  fractured.     Note  weight  required  in  each  case 

and  fill  in  results  below: 

Grams. 

0.  5  per  cent  broke  with 

1      per  cent  broke  with 

5      per  cent  broke  with 

10      per  cent  broke  with 

Control  broke  with 

Explain  the  loss  of  plasticity  due  to  the  lime: . 

Experiment  No.  5. 

DETERMINATION    OF   THE    APPARENT   SPECIFIC   GRAVITY    <>F   SOILS. 

Use  each  of  the  four  soils  as  in  former  experiments. 

1.  Weigh  carefully  in  empty  and  thoroughly  cleaned  soil  tube  ("  >. 

2.  Fill  it  with  one  of  the  soils  to  be  tested,  which  must  first  be  well  pulverized  if 
lumpy.  In  filling  use  the  soil-compacting  machine,  allowing  the  weight  to  fall  three 
times  from  the  0-inch  mark  upon  each  cupful  of  soil.  Fill  the  tube  to  the  crease 
near  the  top. 

:\.    Weigh  the  filled  tube  carefully  {b). 

4.  The  area  of  the  bottom  of  the  tube  is  20  square  centimeters.  From  this  com- 
pute the  number  of  cubic  centimeters  of  soil  which  it  contains  (c). 

5.  Determine  the  amount  of  hygroscopic  moisture  in  a  special  sample  of  the  soil, 
according  to  direction  given  under  Experiment  No.  2  (d). 

Calculations — 

h — (a  +  d)=weight  of  the  given  volume  of  soil. 


Therefore,     -  -  =  weight  of  1  cc.  of  soil = volume  weight  of  soil. 

apparent  specific  gravity. 


Volume  weight  of  soil 
Volume  weight  of  water 

I  find  the  apparent  specific  gravity  to  he  as  follows:    Sand, ;  gravel,  ; 

loam,  ;  clay,  . 

The  volume  weight  <»i  apparent  specific  gravity  of  soils  varies  with  the  amount  of 
packing,  a  freshly  plowed  held  being  much  lighter  per  cubic  foot  than  one  com- 
pacted by  rains  or  tramping. 

Explain  the  object  <»!  using  the  soil-compacting  machine  in  this  experi- 
ment.   , 


35 
Experiment  No.  9. 

DETERMINATION    OF    THE    POWER    OF    LOOSE    SOELS   TO    RETAIN    MOISTURE. 

1.  Place  100  grams  of  the  air-dried  soil  in  a  beaker  and  add  LOO  cubic  centimeters 
of  distilled  water. 

2.  Alix  the  soil  and  water  thoroughly  and  rinse  the  soil  upon  a  previously  sat- 
urated filter  with  a  known  amount  of  distilled  water.  Cover  the  top  of  the  funnel 
with  a  glass  plate  to  prevent  evaporation. 

3.  Catch  the  water  which  drains  away,  in  a  graduate,  and  deduct  the  amount  of 
water  caught  from  the  total  amount  used.  The  remainder  represents  the  amount 
retained  by  the  soil. 

4.  With  a  special  sample  of  the  soil  used  determine  the  per  cent  of  hygroscopic 
water. 

Calculation. — After  finding  the  per  cent  of  hygroscopic  water,  determine  the 
amount  of  water-free  soil  in  the  100-gram  sample  taken.  Add  the  total  amount  of 
hygroscopic  water  to  the  capillary  water  retained  and  divide  the  sum  by  the  weight 
of  water-free  soil,  and  the  quotient  will  represent  the  per  cent  of  water  held,  calcu- 
lated on  the  basis  of  water-free  soil. 

Percent  of  water  retained  was:  Sand,  ;  clay,  ;  loam,  ;  gravel, 


Why  do  you  use  air-dried  soil  in  this  experiment? 
Why  do  you  moisten  the  filter?     . 


E.rpi  riment  No.  12. 

DETERMINATION    OF    THE    RATE    OF    PERCOLATION    OF    AIK    THROUGH    SOILS. 

1.  Fill  the  series  of  tubes  provided  lor  this  experiment  with  the  finely  pulverized 
and  sifted  soils  without  compacting. 

2.  Attach  the  tubes  successively  to  the  aspirator  and  note  the  length  of  time 
requited  to  force  or  draw  10  liters  of  air  through  each  sample  of  soil.  The  aspirator 
weight  must  be  started  from  the  same  height  in  each  case. 

This  experiment  illustrates  the  relative  aeration  of  soils,  a  question  which  is  of 
importance  in  connection  with  the  subject  of  the  growth  and  development  of  the 
nitrifying  and  other  bacteria  of  the  soil  concerned  in  the  production  of  plant  food. 

Time  required  for  sand,  ;  gravel,  ;  loam,  ;  clay,  . 


Experiment  No.  IS. 

CAPILLARY    ATTRACTION    OF    SOILS. 

1.  Close  the  lower  end  of  12  of  the  large  glass  tubes  by  a  piece  of  thin  muslin  tied 
firmly  to  the  tubes.  The  tubes  are  then  filled  with  the  finely  pulverized  air-dried 
soils,  which  have  been  carefully  sifted  to  remove  all  small  stones.  These  tubes  are 
to  be  filled  with  each  soil — Xo.  1,  by  simply  pouring  the  soil  as  loosely  as  possible 
into  the  tube;  Xo.  2.  by  compacting  the  soil  gently  by  tapping  the  lower  end  of  tin- 
tube  upon  the  bench,  and  Xo.  4,  by  compacting  the  soil  by  ramming  with  a  rod. 
Care  must  be  taken  to  compact  the  different  soils  to  the  same  degree,  both  in  the 
jarring  and  ramming,  by  jarring  or  ramming  each  tube  the  same  number  of  times. 

The  tubes  are  now  placed  in  the  supporting  frame  in  such  a  manner  that  the  lower 
ends  shall  dip  one-half  inch  beneath  the  surface  of  a  tray  of  water. 

The  experiment  is  now  ready  for  observation  at  intervals  of  twenty-four  hours, 
when  the  height  to  which  the  water  has  risen  is  carefully  measured  and  recorded- 


36 


These  observations  should  be  taken  daily  for  one  week,  and  the  results  arc  to  be 
below . 


noted 


Day. 

Band.                     Gravel. 

Loam. 

Clay. 

No.l. 

No. -J.  No. 3.  No.l. 

No.  2.  No.  3. 

No.  l.  No.  2. 

No.  3. 

No.l. 

No.  2.  No.  3. 

[Rise 

iTotal  height 

fRise 

•_' 

iTntal  height 

• 

|Kisr 

iTotal  height 

(Rise 

iTotal  height 



fRise 

5 

ITotal  height 



6 

fRise 

ITotal  height 

fRise 

/ 

(Total  height 

To  obtain  accurate  and  reliable  results  it  is  necessary  to  use  great  care  in  tilling  the 
tubes,  observing  in  particular  that  there  are  no  places  where  the  column  of  soil  is 
unevenly  packed  or  broken  by  coarse  material  which  will  prevent  the  action  of 
capillarity. 


Experiment  No.  14. 

EFFECT   OF    CULTIVATION    OR    DUST    MULCHES   ON    EVAPORATION    OF    WATER    FROM    SOILS. 

Fill  all  the  tubes  with  the  fine  prairie  soils,  using  the  compacting  machine.  All  the 
tubes  should  be  filled  to  the  same  level. 

The  conical  bases  of  the  tubes  are  then  rilled  partly  full  of  water,  so  that  the  water- 
shall  stand  at  the  same  level  in  each.  Determine  the  level  with  the  S-shaped  glass 
tube,  and  measure  the  depth  of  water  very  accurately  with  the  millimeter  rule.  The 
tubes  are  to  be  filled  to  the  same  level  each  day,  and  the  amount  of  water  added  is 
carefully  noted.  This  amount  represents  the  water  lost  by  evaporation.  The  tubes 
are  treated  as  follows:  Tube  1,  control;  tube  2,  cultivated  1  inch;  tube  3,  cultivated 
2  inches;  tube  4,  cultivated  3  inches;  tube  5,  cultivated  4  inches;  tube  6,  cultivated 
5  inches. 

The  cultivation  is  performed  each  day  by  removing  a  layer  of  soil  to  the  depth  of 
cultivation  used  in  the  tube,  and  thoroughly  mixing  it,  when  it  is  replaced. 

Each  tube  has  an  area  of  80  square  centimeters  =  12.4  square  inches  =■•„  \  ,  B  acre, 
and  the  results  are  to  be  computed  in  tons  of  water  evaporated  per  acre.  The  obser- 
vations are  to  be  taken  for  seven  days  and  the  results  filled  in  below. 


Depth  of  culture 

Total  number  grams 
Tons  per  acre 


0  in. 


1  in. 


•1  in. 


3  in. 


1  in. 


5  in. 


Experiment  No.  15. 

EFFECT   <>K    ARTIFICIAL    MULCHES    UPON    EVAPORATION    OF    WATER    FROM    SOILS. 

This  experiment  is  conducted  in  a  similar  manner  to  the  last,  excepting  that  the 
tubes  are  all  filled  to  the  same  level  and  used  as  follows:  No.  1,  control;  No.  2,  2 
inches  sand;  No.  •'!,  2  inches  clay;  No.  4,  2  inches  muck;  No.  5,  2  inches  sawdust; 
No.  6,  2  inches  cut  straw. 


Control 

Sand. 

Clay. 

Muck. 

Sawdust. 

Cut  straw. 

37 

MICHIGAN  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE. 

The  agricultural  course  in  this  college  requires  four  or  five  years 
for  completion,  depending  on  the  preparation  of  the  candidates  for 
admission,  and  leads  to  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  science.  The 
entrance  examinations  for  the  live-year  course  cover  the  following 
subjects:  Arithmetic,  geography,  grammar,  reading,  spelling,  pen- 
manship, and  history  of  the  United  States.  The  holder  of  a  teacher's 
certificate,  or  eighth-grade  diploma  signed  by  a  county  eommissiner 
and  issued  by  a  school  following  the  course  of  study  outlined  by 
the  State  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  will  be  admitted  to 
the  five-year  course  without  examination.  For  admission  to  the  four- 
year  course,  students  must  hold  diplomas  from  high  schools  on  an 
accredited  list,  or  must,  in  addition  to  the  requirements  named  above, 
pass  examinations  in  algebra  through  quadratic  equations,  in  plane 
geometry,  in  elementary  physics,  and  in  English.  Candidates  for 
admission  must  bring  testimonials  of  good  character,  and  must  be  not 
less  than  fifteen  years  of  age. 

The  entrance  requirements  also  presuppose  that  the  applicant  has  the 
ability  to  harness  and  drive  horses,  to  plow,  harrow,  mark  corn  ground, 
drill,  operate  the  mower,  reaper,  and  farm  implements  generally,  and 
to  perform  in  a  neat  and  workmanlike  manner  the  details  of  regular 
farm  work.  A  failure  to  pass  this  examination  will  not  exclude  from 
the  college;  another  opportunity  will  be  provided  at  the  close  of  the 
second  year  to  pass  on  these  studies.  If  the  student  then  fails  he  will 
be  required  to  remain  at  the  college  during  the  summer  vacation 
1  tctween  his  second  and  third  years,  or  to  Avork  for  the  same  period  on 
some  farm  approved  by  the  professor  of  agriculture.  He  will  receive 
his  final  examination  on  the  subject  at  the  beginning  of  the  junior 
year. 

Since  both  the  four-year  and  the  five-year  courses  cover  practically 
the  same  ground  in  agricultural  subjects,  only  the  four-year  course 
will  be  described. 

The  course  is  centered  around  instruction  and  practice  in  agriculture 
and  horticulture  and  the  sciences  directly  bearing  upon  successful 
farming.  It  includes  the  following  credits:  Agriculture,  60;  agri- 
culture or  horticulture  (elective),  59;  anatomy,  10;  bacteriology,  14; 
bacteriology  (elective),  24;  botany,  56;  botany  (elective),  12;  chem- 
istry, 42;  chemistry  (elective),  12;  civil  engineering,  6;  civil  engineer- 
ing (elective),  24;  drawing,  10;  economics  (elective),  12;  English,  59; 
English  (elective),  12;  entomology,  12;  geology  (elective),  10;  Ger- 
man (elective),  60;  history  (elective),  12;  horticulture,  51;  hygiene, 4; 
mathematics,  29;  meteorology  (elective),  12;  military  science  and  tac- 
tics, 22;  plrysics,  20;  physics  (elective),  12;  political  science,  10;  psy- 
chology (elective),  12;  sanitary  science,  6;  veterinary  science,  5;  vet- 
erinary science  (elective),  36;  zoology,  20;  zoology  (elective),  12. 


38 

Until  the  end  of  the  first  term,  junior  year,  all  four-year  agricultural 

students  pursue  exactly  the  same  studies,  but  for  the  remaining  live 
term-  they  specialize  in  their  technical  work,  electing  either  agricul- 
ture, including  dairying,  stock-feeding,  soil  work,  and  farm  crops,  or 
horticulture,  including  vegetable  culture,  pomology,  and  floriculture. 

Instruction  in  agronomy  is  given  by  the  professor  of  agronomy  and 
one  assistant  in  the  second  and  third  terms  of  the  freshman  year,  the 
first  and  second  terms  of  the  sophomore  year,  the  second  and  third 
terms  of  the  junior  year,  and  the  first,  second,  and  third  terms  of  the 
senior  year,  and  is  supplemented  by  instruction  in  botany,  bacteriology, 
and  chemistry. 

The  courses  in  botany  (aside  from  those  bearing  on  forestry)  for 
agricultural  students  include  in  the  freshman  year  sixty-one  hours  of 
structural  botany  (gross  anatomy  and  morphology  of  fruits  and  seeds) 
and  thirty-three  hours  of  systematic  botany;  in  the  sophomore  year 
ninety-six  hours  of  plant  histology  (use  of  compound  microscope, 
preparation  of  slides,  use  of  reagents,  study  of  plant  anatomy,  etc.) 
and  thirty-three  hours  of  ecology;  one  hundred  and  twenty-six  hours 
of  fungi  of  economic  importance  during  the  first  term  of  the  junior 
year;  and  forty-eight  hours  devoted  to  a  study  of  grasses  and  weeds 
during  the  second  term  of  the  junior  year.  A  senior  elective  in  plant 
physiology  has  been  announced.  Instruction  in  botany  is  given  in  the 
botanical  laboratory,  a  building  55  by  45  feet,  two  stories  with  attic 
and  basement.  The  basement  includes  a  fire-proof  room  containing 
the  herbarium  of  about  75,000  specimens,  a  lavatory,  and  large  work- 
room for  the  preparation  and  storing  of  specimens  and  boxes;  the  first 
floorcontains  a  dark  room,  two  well-lighted  rooms  very  fairly  equipped 
for  histological  and  physiological  studies,  and  an  office  and  laboratory 
for  the  professor  in  charge;  the  second  floor  contains  a  large  room  for 
beginners  in  botany  and  for  lectures,  and  a  study  and  laboratory  for 
the  assistants;  the  garret  has  recently  been  fitted  for  use  as  necessity 
may  require. 

Bacteriology  is  taught  by  the  laboratory  method,  supplemented  by 
such  lectures  as  are  necessary  to  direct  the  work.  After  one  prelimi- 
nary lecture  course  and  two  laboratory  courses  (first,  morphological 
and  cultural  bacteriology,  and  second,  physiological  bacteriology),  the 
student  may  elect  during  the  winter  term  of  the  senior  year  a  labo- 
ratory course  in  bacteriology  (ten  hours  per  week)  devoted  to  the 
biological  consideration  of  the  soil.  This  work  is  given  in  a  new  and 
well-equipped  bacteriological  laboratory,  which  has  just  been  completed 
at  a  cost  (exclusive  of  equipment)  of  $25  000. 

Instruction  in  chemistry  includes  general  elementary  chemistry 
(ninety-eight  hours  during  the  first  term  of  the  freshman  year),  quali- 
tative analysis  (one  hundred  and  twenty  hours  during  the  second  term 
of  the   freshman  year),  organic  chemistry  (ninety-eight   hours  during 


39 

the  first  term  of  the  sophomore  year),  and  agricultural  chemistry  (sixty 

hours  during  the  second  term  of  the  sophomore  year  and  sixty  hours, 
elective,  during  the  second  term  of  the  senior  year).  The  course  in 
agricultural  chemistry  includes  the  history  of  agricultural  chemistry; 
the  composition  of  plants,  sources  of  the  organic  constituents  of  plants, 
how  to  increase  their  quantity  and  availability;  the  soil  and  the  influ- 
ence of  physical  agencies  on  its  chemical  condition;  the  nature  and 
action  of  the  ash  elements  in  plant  growth;  manures  and  manuring; 
intensive  and  extensive  agriculture,  and  conservation  of  fertility;  the 
chemistry  of  fodders  and  stock  feeding,  of  ripening  of  fruits  and 
grains.  The  aim  in  these  lectures  is  to  state  and  solve  the  chemical 
problems  of  the  farm.  The  chemical  laboratory  building  contains  a 
lecture  room  for  150  students,  analytical  rooms  fitted  with  evaporating 
hoods  and  tables  for  68  students,  the  professor's  private  laboratory  and 
study,  and  a  suite  of  rooms  for  students  in  metallurgy  and  quantitative 
chemical  analysis,  and  is  well  equipped  with  chemical  apparatus  and 
stores. 

The  courses  in  agronomy  are  introduced  by  a  course  of  twenty 
lectures  on  the  formation,  character,  and  distribution  of  soils;  the 
agencies  still  at  work  in  soil  formation  and  soil  destruction;  and  the 
care  required  to  be  exercised  to  preserve  the  soils  of  agricultural 
districts.  These  lectures  are  given  during  the  last  four  weeks  of  the 
second  term  of  the  freshman  year  and  are  illustrated  by  samples  of 
soil,  rock,  etc.,  and  by  the  stereopticon,  and  are  supplemented  by 
laboratory  work  and  oral  quizzes.  During  the  third  term  of  the 
freshman  year,  ten  hours  per  week  are  spent  in  studying  soils  as 
regards  their  characteristics,  functions,  needs,  and  treatment  in  agri- 
culture; drainage,  its  theory  and  practice;  reasons  for  the  different 
operations  of  the  farm  and  the  tools  used;  the  planning  of  farm  work, 
etc.  Throughout  this  work  the  lantern  is  used  to  illustrate  the  talks 
and  the  student  is  taken  to  the  tool  room  and  to  the  field  for  observa- 
tion.    It  is  the  aim  to  have  quizzes  at  least  as  often  as  once  per  week. 

Two  hours  daily  of  the  first  term  of  the  sophomore  }rear  are  devoted 
to  lectures  and  laboratory  work  in  agricultural  physics,  including 
(besides  rural  engineering  and  farm  mechanics)  laboratory  work  in 
the  mechanical  analysis  of  soils,  the  determination  of  moisture  in 
soils,  green  and  dry  fodders,  roots  and  grains,  and  experiments  in 
moisture  and  air  movements  in  soils. 

The  subject  of  farm  crops  is  given  in  lectures  five  hours  per  week 
during  the  second  term  of  the  sophomore  year.  In  this  course,  "good 
seed  and  conditions  affecting  its  vitality,  general  requirements  for 
successful  plant  growth,  conditions  governing  the  time  and  depth  of 
planting,  rate  of  seeding,  etc.,  and  the  principles  of  plant  improve- 
ment, are  discussed.     The  history,  distribution,  general  characteristics, 


40 

adaptability,  uses  of  the  several  farm  crops,  and  the  best  method  of 
producing  them  arc  studied/' 

In  the  second  term  of  the  junior  year  the  student  may  elect  "agri- 
cultural experimentation."  In  this  course  one  hour  per  day  is  given 
to  lectures  and  individual  work  on  the  part  of  the  student  on  the 
experiment  station  work  and  literature  of  this  and  other  countries. 
the  organization  and  work  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, methods  of  experimentation,  and  the  principles  underlying 
the  same.  Each  student  is  required  in  closing  up  the  term's"  work  to 
outline  an  experiment  along  some  practical  line  of  live  stock,  dairy- 
ing, soils,  or  crops,  and  to  submit  the  outline  to  the  class  for  criticism 
and  discussion.  The  experimentation  is  continued  during  the  third 
term  two  hours  per  day.     For  example,  tin4  student  electing  an  experi- 


FlG.  2.— Tube 


galvan 


on  used  to  study  effectiveness  of  mulches  upon  moistu 


nient  in  agronomy,  such  as  tests  of  forage  crop  mixtures,  variety  tests 
of  Held  crops,  fertilizer  experiments,  etc.,  is  allotted  the  necessary 
land,  furnished  team,  implements,  seed,  etc.,  and  is  required  to  carry 
through  his  experiment  and  report  upon  it. 

"The  object  of  this  work  is  twofold.  To  the  young  man  going  back 
to  the  farm  it  gives  a  (raining  which  enables  him  at  once  to  pass  upon 
the  merits  of  any  line  of  work  described  in  station  literature  and  to 
appropriate  that  portion  of  it  which  may  be  of  value  to  himself;  to 
the  young  man  going  into  technical  fields  it  gives  a  training  which 
should  give  strength  and  reliability  to  his  work." 

In  the  senior  year  an  elective  in  soil  physics  is  offered.  In  this 
course  ten  hours  per  week  during  the  first  term  are  devoted  to  lectures 
and  laboratory  work,  embracing  a  study  of  the  physical  properties  and 


U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bui.  127,  Office  of  Expt.  Stations. 


Plate  V. 


U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bui.  127,  Office  of  Expt.  Stati 


Plate  VI. 


Fig.  1.— Michigan  Agricultural  College— Students  Making  Mechanical  Analyses 

of  Soils. 


Fig.  2.— Michigan  Agricultural  College— Soils  Laboratory  and  Class  Room. 


41 


characteristics  of  soils,  such  as  determining  the  specific  gravity,  apparent 
specific  gravity,  water  movements,  capillarity,  etc.  During  the  winter 
term  ten  hours  per  week  are  devoted  by  the  student  to  original  inves- 
tigation work  along  some  line  agreed  upon  between  the  student  and  pro- 
fessor in  charge.  During  the  spring 
term  ten  hours  per  week,  seven 
weeks,  are  devoted  to  advanced  work 
in  soils,  including  lectures,  labora- 
tory work,  studying  soluble  salts  in 
soils  by  the  electrical  method,  the 
pore  space  in  natural  soils,  etc. 

The  building  in  which  the  instruc- 
tional and  laboratory  work  in  agron- 
omy is  chiefly  conducted  is  built  of 
brick,  is  53  feet  long.  'A  feet  wide. 
and  two  stories  high,  with  attic  and 
basement,  and  is  known  as  Agricul- 
tural Hall  (PI.  V).  The  basement 
of  this  building  contains  a  large  lab- 
oratory  for  agricultural  physics,  a 
small  laboratory  for  mechanical 
analysis  of  soils  (PL  VI, fig.  1), store- 
rooms, etc. .  and  connects  with  a  small 
plant  house.  The  first  floor  contains 
offices,  a  dark  room,  and  a  large  gen- 
eral lecture  room  provided  with  '.hi 
square  feet  of  blackboard,  two  cases 
of  wall  maps,  a  stereopticon,  and  a 
12  by  1:2  foot  lantern  screen.  The 
windows  of  this  and  other  rooms  in 
the  building  are  provided  with  cloth 
curtains  and  wood  blinds.  The  lan- 
tern slides  at  present  include  illus- 
trations of  different  phases  of  soil 
formation  and  soil  destruction  and  of 
different  kinds  of  farm  machinery. 
New  slides  are  being  added.  The 
soils  laboratory,  which  also  serves 
as  a  lecture  room,  is  on  the  second 
floor  of  Agricultural  Hall  (PI.  VI, 
tig.  2)  and  is  supplied  with  apparatus  as  follows:  Four  sets  of  galvan- 
ized iron  tubes  (fig.  -2)  for  the  study  of  moisture  movements  in  soils 
and  three  sets  of  brass  tubes  for  the  study  of  water  and  air  movements 
(figs.  3  and  4)  in  soils;  a  "King's  aspirator"  (fig.  3)  for  determining  the 
effective  size  of  soil  grains;  a  *"  Whitney's   bridge'"   for  determining 


Fig.  3. 


King's  aspirator  to  determine  the  ef- 
fective size  of  soil  grains. 


42 

he  soluble  salts  in  soils;  apparatus  for  the  mechanical  analysis  of 
soils;  a  steam  drying  oven  and  a  hot-air  drying  oven  (fig.  «'»):  trays  and 
case,  sampling  auger,  and  sampling  tube  for  field  work  in  soils;  a 
torsion  balance  and  a  number  of  other  balances;  four  compound  micro- 
scopes and  one  micrometer  slide:  a  number  of  samples  of  typical  soils 
from  other  States,  as  well  as  samples  of  Michigan  soils,  to  which 
samples  additions  are  being  made  as  rapidly  as  opportunity  permits;  a 
grade  level  and  rod;  specific  gravity  bulbs,  drying  tubes,  and  sundry 
glass  and  rubber  tubing  and  glassware.  The  room  has  about  120 
square  feet  of  blackboard. 

The  college  farm  comprises  over  4<>o  acres,  not  including  the  campus, 
orchards,  gardens,  stock  yards,  and  the  experiment  station  plats.  It 
is  divided  into  twenty  pasture,  field,  and  wood  lots.  At  present  the 
several  acreages  are  about  as  follows:  Woods,  lb);  wild  pasture,  30; 
tame  pasture,  37;  hay.  69;  and  roots,  cereals,  and  forage  crops.  1  f  1 
acres.  The  soil  is  a  drift  soil  and  ranges  from  a  sandy  soil  to  a  line 
(day  soil,  all  of  which  is  interspersed  with  coarse  gravel  and  hard  heads 
and  bowlders.  The  farm  machinery  is  up  to  date  in  every  particular 
and  includes  a  large  collection  of  modern  types  of  implements  and 
machines,  as  well  as  some  of  the  older  types,  which  are  used  by  the 
students  in  making  comparisons  of  draft,  work,  effect  on  soils,  etc. 

The  library  contains  over  21,000  bound  volumes  and  about  5,000 
pamphlets,  and  is  rich  in  scientific  works.  The  tables  of  the  reading 
room  are  supplied  with  all  the  leading  agricultural  papers  and  journals. 
In  matters  concerning  crops  and  soils  reference  is  made,  first  of  all, 
probably,  to  station  literature,  then  to  Store r's  Agriculture,  King's 
works,  and  others  of  Bailey's  Rural  Science  Series,  and  the  Rotham- 
sted  reports. 

Exhibit  No.  ;">. 

A  FEW  OF  THE  PRACTICUMS  IN  AGRONOMY. 


The  movement  of  air  through  different  soils. 

Description  of  apparatus. — The  apparatus  used   fur  the  study  of  air  movements 

through  soils  consists  of  an  aspirator,  as  shown  in  fig.  -4,  and  \-  brass  tubes  1<> 
inches  in  height  and  having  a  diameter  of  3 inches.  These  soil  tubes  are  all  filled  to 
the  depth  of  1  inch  with  a  coarse  sand,  and  above  the  sand  are  filled  to  a  depth  of  12 
inches  with  the  different  soils  indicated  in  the  table.  By  means  of  apparatus  pre- 
pared for  the  purpose  the  soils  are  introduced  into  the  tubes  and  packed  so  that  any 
difference  in  the  pore  space  in  the  soils  must  be  due  to  the  physical  properties  of  the 
soil.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  variation  of  size  of  soil  grain,  variation  in  the  propor- 
tions of  large  and  small  grains,  variation  in  amount  of  organic  matter  present,  etc., 
must  be  the  factors  resulting  in  the  differences  in  the  rates  at  which  the  air  moves 
through  the  soil. 

Observe  thai  we  have  not  the  condition:-  ill  the  soil  in  the  cylinders  that  we  have 
in  the  soil  in  the  held,  and  that  with  this  apparatus  we  are  studying  only  the  effects 
resulting  largely  from  the  properties  named. 


Erratum. — On  pages  43  and  44  the  cuts  have  been  transposed,  i.  e.,  the 
apparatus  shown  on  page  43  is  for  the  study  of  percolation  of  water  through 
soils  and  the  apparatus  shown  on  page  44  is  for  the  study  of  the  movement  of 
air  through  soils. 


43 

Details  of  the  practicum. — 

1.  With  the  rubber  tube  detached  from  soil  tubes,  lift  the  aspirator  weight,  allow- 
ing bell  to  fall  to  bottom  of  aspirator  tank. 

2.  Attach  rubber  tube  to  soil  tube  No.  1 . 

3.  Now  carefully  lower  weight  until   it  is  just  sustained    by  pressure  of  air  upon 
the  bell. 

4.  With  watch  note  time  required  for  the  hand  to  pass  over  three  divisions  of  the 
dial,  recording  time  as  indicated  in  a  table  like  the  one  below. 

5.  In  like  manner  attach  rubber  tube  to  Nos.  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  and  S  and   note  and 
record  the  time  required  to  pass  over  three  divisions  of  the  dial. 


Fig.  4.— Apparatus  used  to  study  the  movement  of  air  through  soils. 

G.  In  like  manner  attach  rubber  tube  to  Nos.  9,  10,  11,  and  12  and  note  the  time 
required  for  the  hand  to  pass  osrer  one  division  on  the  dial.  Multiply  this  time  by 
three  and  introduce  in  table. 

7.   Make  computations  and  fill  in  as  indicated  in  the  table. 


Number 

of  cylin- 
der. 

Timc-                             1  Relative 

Soil. 

Initial.      Final. 

Net. 

A-age.;«e- 

Sand 

{      I 

I 
{      I 

(■          11 

1 
1 

l 

J 

} 

1 



Peat 

1 

} 

Clay  loam 



1 
1... 

('lav.  with  8  per  cent  lime 

:::::::: 



J 

1 i 

Clay  

I 

:::::::: 

! 

44 

Percolation  of  water  through  different  soils. 

Description  of  apparatus, — This  apparatus  (fig.  5),  consists  of  Boil  tubes  similar  to 
those  used  for  the  study  of  the  rate  of  air  movement  through  soils  differing  only  in 
having  tubes  at  the  tup  by  which  the  series  may  be  connected  by  pieces  of  rubber 
tubing  and  supplied  automatically  with  water  so  that  the  head  or  pressure  in  all  the 

tubes  can  be  kept  constant.     The  tubes  are  rilled  in  the  same  manner  with  soil  as  for 
studying  air  movements,  and  the  rate  of  percolatiou  depends  upon  the  same  physical 
properties  of  the  soils  as  in  the  case  of  the  movement  of  air. 
hi  toils  of  the  practicum. — 

1.  See  that  the  water  supply  is  properly  arranged. 

2.  Tare  the  glass  or  cylinder  of  each  soil  tube  and  record  its  weight  in  the  proper 
place  in  a  tabic  like  the  one  shown  below,  but  do  not  return  them  immediately  under 
the  drain  tubes. 

:!.    Remove  corks  from  drain  tubes  and  insert  wire  drips. 

4.  When  water  drops  from  all  the  wires,  place  the  glasses  and  cylinders  quickly 
under  the  drain  tubes,  noting  the  time. 


Fig.  5.— Apparatus  used  u>  study  percolation  of  water  through  soils. 

•").    At  the  end  of  45  minutes  quickly  remove  glasses  and  cylinders. 
<1.    Remove  wire  drips  and  insert  corks  in  drain  tubes. 

7.  Weigh   glasses  and   cylinders  with   contents   and   record  weights  in  the  proper 
place  in  the  table. 

8.  Make  proper  computations  and  introduce  results  in  table. 


Number     Weighl    ,\Vin  ,,.,  of  water 

of        of  empty         ' . ,r  percolat- 

cyhnder.  cylinder        '  V  ingin45 

lt-IllS-  milllltrs 


Soil. 


Clay  

Clay  loam. 

Bandy 

Peal      .... 


Average 

cylinder    .'-'"{.l  '     percola- 
/",        <";'"|m>     Hid  con-    1  tioiiin  r> 


Relative    '■■"-V' 


[nches 
per  hour 
perco- 
lating. 


45 

Determination  of  soil  moisture. 

IN    SOILS    FREE    FKOM    STONE. 

To  take  samples: 

1.  Provide  yourself  with  soil  tube,  mallet,  and  three  soil  trays. 

2.  Having  determined  place  for  taking  soil  sample,  pack  the  surface  of  the  soil 
lightly  with  the  foot.  Press  or  drive  the  tube  into  the  ground  until  the  1-foot  mark 
on  the  tube  is  even  with  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Give  the  tube  a  turn.  Place 
one  hand  firmly  over  the  top  of  the  soil  tube  to  keep  out  air  and  with  the  other  hand 
grasp  and  slowly  withdraw  the  tube. 

3.  Remove  cover  from  one  of  the  trays,  invert  the  soil  tube,  and  allow  the  core  to 
pass  from  the  tube  into  the  tray.     Put  cover  on  tray  at  once. 

4.  Return  soil  tube  to  the  hole  and  press  or  drive  down  until  the  2-foot  mark  on 
the  tube  is  even  with  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Remove  as  before  and  place  the 
core  in  a  second  tray. 

5.  In  like  manner  secure  core  from  third  foot  and  introduce  into  a  third  tray. 

6.  Pass  to  another  point  and  as  before  secure  cores  of  the  first,  second,  and  third 
foot,  respectively,  and  introduce  the  cores  into  the  trays  containing  the  first,  second, 
and  third  foot,  respectively,  already  obtained. 

7.  Repeat  until  composite  samples  of  four  are  obtained. 
To  dry  samples: 

8.  Weigh  each  tray  with  contents,  recording  weights  of  each.  Remove  covers  and 
place  trays  in  drying  oven. 

9.  After  forty-eight  hours  replace  covers  and  weigh  trays  with  contents,  carefully 
recording  weights.     Be  sure  samples  are  dry. 

10.  Remove  the  dry  soil  from  trays,  wipe  the  trays  carefully  and  weigh,  recording 
weight. 

11.  Determine  (a)  loss  of  moisture  from  the  soil,  (6)  weight  of  dry  soil,  and  (c) 
the  per  cent  of  moisture  in  each  soil  estimated  on  dry  weight  of  soil. 

IX    ROCKY    SOIC. 

To  take  samples: 

1.  Provide  yourself  with  two  soil  trays  and  a  spade. 

2.  Having  determined  place  to  take  samples  dig  a  hole  1  foot  deep  and  a  little 
wider  and  longer  than  the  width  of  your  spade.  See  that  one  side  is  perpendicular. 
Remove  all  loose  soil  fr<  >m  bottom  of  hole. 

3.  With  spade  cut  off  a  slice  1  inch  thick  from  the  perpendicular  side  of  the  hole 
to  a  depth  of  6  inches,  allowing  soil  to  fall  to  the  bottom  of  the  hole  where  it  should 
be  quickly  crumbled  and  mixed  and  freed  from  stones  larger  than  a  small  marble. 

4.  Place  about  one-half  pint  of  this  soil  in  one  of  the  trays  and  cover.  Remove  the 
rest  of  the  soil  from  the  bottom  of  the  hole. 

5.  With  spade  finish  cutting  the  slice  to  the  depth  of  1  foot  and  proceed  as  above 
to  mix  and  free  from  stone. 

6.  Place  one-half  pint  of  this  soil  in  the  second  tray  and  cover. 

7.  Selecting  another  point  proceed  as  above  to  take  samples  of  the  first  and  second 
6  inches,  respectively,  and  place  the  samples  so  taken  in  the  trays  with  the  samples 
of  the  first  and  second  6  inches  already  taken,  respectively. 

To  dry  the  samples : 

8.  Weigh  each  tray  with  contents,  recording  weights  of  each.  Remove  covers  and 
place  tray  in  drying  oven. 

9.  After  forty-eight  hours  replace  covers  and  weigh  trays  with  contents,  carefully 
recording  weights.     Be  sure  samples  are  dry. 

10.  Remove  the  dry  soil  from  trays,  wipe  the  trays  carefully  and  weigh,  recording 
weight, 

11.  Determine  («)  loss  of  moisture  from  soil,  [b)  weight  of  dry  soil,  and  (c)  the 
per  cent  of  moisture  in  each  soil  estimated  on  dry  weight  of  soil. 


4C> 


Determination  of  moisture,  ingreen  crops,  fodders,  roots,  and  grains. 


("I  Green  crops.     Cutsample 


r  drying  oven. 


I. — PREPARATION. 

■]<»sc  t<»  ground.  Either  fold  or  tie  into  short  bun- 
dles or  cut  into  short  lengths  and  put  into 
a  tray. 

(b)  Fodder  (including  hay  and  Btraw). 

Cut  a  quantity  of  the  material  in  a  feed 
cutter  or  with  a  knife,  mix  well,  and  till 
tray  with  sample. 

(c)  Roots.  Select  one  or  more  typical 
roots,  clean  with  a  good  brush  or  wash 
and  wipe  carefully.  With  a  sharp  knife 
slice  in  tray  quickly  and  cover. 

(d)  Grain.  Place  about  one  pint  of 
cleaned  grain  in  a  tray.  If  it  is  desire*  1 
to  determine  the  moisture  of  corn  in  the 
ear  select  a  typical  ear  having  all  of  its 
kernels  and  place  in  tray. 

II. — LABELING. 

For  the  material  placed  in  the  trays  it 
is  sufficient  to  record  the  number  of  the 
tray. 

Upon  those  materials  not  placed  in 
trays  a  tag  bearing  your  name  should 
be  placed. 

III. — WEIGHTS. 


You  will  need  to  determine:  (a)  Net 
weight  before  drying;  (b)  Net  weight 
after  drying;  (r)  Loss  of  moisture  by 
drying. 

With  this  data  determine  the  per  cent 
of  moisture  in  the  undried  material. 

IV. — THE   DRYING. 

Place  material  in  hot-air  oven  I  fig.  <>) 
having  temperature  of  120°  C  Drying 
should  continue  until  materials  have 
reached  constant  weights.  This  will  usu- 
ally be  accomplished  in  twenty-four 
hours,  but  sometimes  as  much  as  forty- 
eight  hours  are  required. 

[Each  student  is  given  from  six  to  eighl 
materials  to  dry.  In  some  cases  he  is 
required  to  go  to  the  bin  or  field  to  pro- 
cure them.] 


47 

Exhibit  No.  <>. 

EXAMINATION  QUESTIONS  IN  SOILS  AND  CROPS. 

[This  set  of  questions  covers  in  a  general  way  the  work  done  during  the  spring  term  of  the  freshman 

year.] 

1.  What  is  meant  by  tillage?  What  are  the  chief  objects  sought  in  tillage?  Tell 
quite  fully  how  one  of  these  objects  is  accomplished. 

2.  Explain  the  action  of  the  common  American  plow.  How  does  it  differ  from  the 
English  plow?  Speak  briefly  of  their  relative  merits.  What  objections  to  the  com- 
mon plow?     What  may  we  do  toward  obviating  some  of  the  bad  effects? 

3.  Why  do  we  cultivate?     Describe  an  ideal  cultivator  and  ideal  cultivation. 

4.  What  are  some  of  the  methods  for  removing  the  surplus  water  from  land? 

5.  What  will  govern  each  of  the  following:  Depth  of  drain,  distance  apart  of 
drains,  size  of  tile  to  be  used.  ' 

6.  What  grade  should  tile  drains  have,  what  is  the  least  grade  allowable,  and 
what  precaution  should  be  taken  in  laying  a  drain  at  such  a  grade? 

7.  How  should  laterals  be  connected  with  drains?  Where  and  how  should  silt 
wells  be  constructed? 

8.  What  is  meant  by  rotation  of  crops?     AVhy  do  we  rotate  at  all? 

0.  Outline  what  you  would  call  a  good  rotation,  and  give  reason  for  the  presence 
of  each  crop  in  the  rotation. 

10.  When  would  you  apply  barn  manure?     At  what  rate,  and  why? 

11.  Speak  of  the  value  of  clover  as  a  crop.  AVhy  is  it  difficult  to  grow  clover  in 
Michigan?     Tell  how  you  would  secure  a  stand  of  clover. 

12.  The  effect  of  lime  upon  soils?  Why?  Would  you  apply  lime  to  the  soils  of 
Michigan?     If  yes,  at  what  rate  and  why?     If  no,  why  not? 

13.  What  difference  between  a  good  truck  soil  and  a  good  grass  soil,  and  why  is 
each  soil  especially  adapted  to  its  own  crop? 

14.  In  what  way  is  the  size  of  soil  grain  related  to  (a)  the  water  holding  capacity 
of  the  soil,  (/>)  the  plant  feeding  qualities,  and  (c)  to  the  retaining  of  plant  foods 
against  percolation? 

15.  How  does  the  amount  of  moisture  required  to  grow  a  crop  compare  (a)  with 
our  annual  rainfall,  (6)  with  the  water  content  of  our  soils  in  the  month  of  March? 
What  objections  to  summer  fallowing? 

COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  MINNESOTA. 

Candidates  for  admission  to  the  College  of  Agriculture  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Minnesota  must  have  the  equivalent  of  either  a  three-year 
course  in  the  school  of  agriculture  plus  one  }Tear  of  work  of  high- 
school  grade  in  algebra,  geometry,  English,  history,  and  economics, 
or  a  four-year  course  in  a  city  high  school  plus  one  or  two  years  in 
the  school  of  agriculture.  The  school  of  agriculture  is  a  technical 
high  school,  in  which  agriculture  and  subjects  closely  related  to  it 
largely  predominate.  These  subjects  include  agricultural  botany, 
chemistry  and  physics,  dairy  chemistry,  agronomy,  farm  accounts, 
animal  husbandry,  dairy  husbandry,  fruit  growing,  vegetable  garden- 
ing, etc. ,  presented  in  a  way  to  fit  young  men  for  successful  farm  life 
or  for  entrance  to  the  college  of  agriculture. 

The  college  course  in  agriculture  is  designed  for  those  graduates  of  the  school  of 
agriculture  and  students  from  other  institutions  equally  well  prepared  who  desire 


48 

farther  instruction  in  practical  agricultural  science,  in  the  sciences  related  to  agri- 
culture, and  in  literature  and  the  arts.  Since  all  students  who  enter  this  course 
have  had  the  technical,  scientific,  and  general  work  offered  in  the  school  of  agricul- 
ture, the  college  course  includes  only  advanced  work  of  a  collegiate  grade.  This 
course  designs  to  efficiently  prepare  students  for  either  farm  life  or  for  the  work  of 
the  agricultural  specialist.  Et  emphasizes  the  importance  of  plant  and  animal  pro- 
duction and  the  upbuilding  of  rural  homes  and  farm  life,  while  the  biological  and 
physical  sciences  are  made  prominent. 

Following  the  four  years  of  preparation  in  practical  agricultural  lines  in  the  school 
of  agriculture,  the  freshman  and  sophomore  years  are  devoted  largely  to  the  study  of 
the  sciences.  The  technical  subjects  relating  to  agriculture  and  household  economics 
are  mainly  offered  as  electives  in  the  junior  and  senior  years,  when  the  freedom  for 
election  enables  the  student  to  choose  as  a  specialty  a  major  science  or  an  agricultural 
or  a  household  subject  around  which  to  group  related  elective  subjects.  The  elective" 
courses  during  the  last  two  years  give  an  opportunity  for  further  culture  in  literary 
and  philosophical  lines  and  for  becoming  more  proficient  in  scientific  research  work 
in  some  of  the  many  problems  pressing  for  solution  in  the  development  of  the  State 
and  national  agricultural  experiment  stations.  The  instruction  in  the  various  tech- 
nical agricultural  and  household  divisions  in  the  college  course  is  for  the  most  part  a 
continuation  of  the  work  in  these  subjects  in  the  school  of  agriculture,  each  subject 
being  treated  from  a  more  technical  standpoint.  Students  who  have  first  graduated 
from  the  agricultural  school  are  ready  in  their  junior  and  senior  years  to  elect  spe- 
cialties for  study  and  research  work  along  lines  in  which  they  hope  to  work  after 
graduation. 

The  subjects  in  the  school  of  agriculture  which  more  especially  pre- 
pare for  the  collegiate  work  in  agronomy  are  agricultural  chemistry, 
agricultural  botany,  agricultural  physics,  and  the  subjects  included 
under  the  title  of  agriculture.  m 

Agricultural  chemistry  is  divided  into  dairy  chemistry;  chemistry 
of  foods,  soils,  and  fertilizers,  and  domestic  chemistry.  Under  the  t  itle 
of  soils  and  fertilizers  the  student  receives  instruction  in  the  composi- 
tion of  soils  and  their  properties,  the  sources  of  plant  food,  the  kinds 
and  amounts  of  foods  required  by  crops  and  the  best  ways  of  supplying 
those  demands,  the  various  forms  in  which  plant  food  exists  in  the 
soil,  farm  manures,  their  uses  and  action  upon  the  soil,  the  income 
and  outgo  of  fertility  from  the  farm,  soil  exhaustion  and  soil  improve- 
ment, the  rotation  of  crops,  as  based  upon  the  chemistry  of  soils  and 
the  principles  governing  the  conservation  of  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 
Laboratory  practice  forms  an  important  feature  of  all  the  work  in 
agricultural  chemistry. 

Agricultural  botany  is  taught  with  special  reference  to  its  bearing 
upon  the  everyday  problems  that  present  themselves  to  the  farmer 
and  the  gardener.  By  means  of  flowers  and  plants  from  the  green- 
house and  nursery,  studied  under  the  simple  and  the  compound  micro- 
scope, students  are  given  a  clear  idea  of  the  general  principles  of  plant 
structure  and  vegetable  physiology. 

In  agricultural  physics  the  general  principles  of  physics  are  taught, 
special  stress  being  laid  upon  those  principles  which  to  the  greatest 
extent  enter  into  the  business  of  the  fanner.      About  half  of  the  time 


49 

is  devoted  to  experimental  work  which  includes  capillarity  of  soil; 
diffusion  and  osmosis  of  gases  and  liquids;  heating,  lighting,  and  ven- 
tilation; farm  machinery,  in  particular  pumps,  eveners,  pulleys,  milk 
testers,  centrifugals,  incubators,  windmills,  steam  and  gasoline  engines; 
friction  and  lubricants;  tensile  strength  of  wire  and  binding  twine  of 
different  grades;  lightning  and  lightning  protection. 

The  work  designated  "agriculture''  in  the  school  of  agriculture 
includes  (1)  ''introductory  agriculture — soils;  selecting  and  planting 
farms;  subduing  the  fields;  drainage;  irrigation;  fences;  roads;  build- 
ings; water  supply;  groves  and  introductory  lessons  concerning  farm 
business,  farm  life,  and  the  relations  of  general  science  to  agriculture;" 
and  (2)  field  crops  and  farm  management,  comprising  instruction  in 
remodeling  farm  plans,  production  and  management  of  farm  manures, 
rotation  and  handling  of  field  crops,  care  and  use  of  pastures  and 
meadows,  weeds  and  their  destruction,  and  the  laws  of  heredity  and 
variation  in  plant  breeding,  together  with  instruction  in  methods  of 
breeding  the  leading  field  crops. 

The  college  course  in  agronomy  includes  soil  physics,  field  crops  and 
seed,  and  plant  breeding.  Instruction  in  soil  physics  is  given  in  the 
divisions  of  agricultural  physics  and  agricultural  chemistry,  while 
that  in  field  crops  and  seed  and  in  plant  breeding  is  given  mainly  by 
the  professor  of  agriculture. 

Under  the  head  of  field  crops  and  seed  are  considered  the  botan}T, 
cultivation,  use  and  place  in  the  rotation  of  the  various  cereal,  forage, 
root,  fiber,  sugar,  and  miscellaneous  crops.  Special  attention  is  given 
to  the  subjects  of  permanent,  rotation,  annual,  and  shift  pastures  and 
to  soiling  crops;  to  permanent  and  rotation  meadows,  and  to  the  pro- 
duction and  preservation  of  all  kinds  of  dry-cured  and  ensiled  fodders. 
A  thesis  on  one  or  more  field  crops  is  required  of  each  student. 

The  work  in  plant  breeding  includes  instruction  on  such  subjects  as 
heredity,  variation,  science  of  breeding,  breeding  as  an  art,  improve- 
ment by  nature  and  under  scientific  experimentation,  securing  founda- 
tion stocks,  value  of  Aery  large  numbers,  immense  value  of  the  occa- 
sional individual  which  can  transmit  qualities  of  peculiar  value,  use 
of  an  ideal,  use  and  misuse  of  the  score  card,  intrinsic  qualities,  fancy 
points  and  distinguishing  marks,  pedigree  records  of  prepotency, 
fundamental  principles  underlying  the  arrangement  of  the  record 
books,  bibliography  and  terminology,  study  of  the  literature  of  breed- 
ing. Attention  is  also  given  to  the  botany  of  the  reproductive  organs 
of  field  crops,  field-crop  nursery  management,  producing  new  qualities 
by  hybridizing  and  by  change  of  environment,  hybridizing  versus  cross- 
breeding, in-breeding  and  self-fertilization,  originating  varieties  and 
improving  standard  varieties,  methods  of  disseminating  new  varieties, 
seed  and  plant  introduction,  experimentation  in  the  theories  relating 
26777— No.  127—03 4 


50 

to  heredity,  variation  and  practical  breeding,  seed  growing  as  a  farm 
business,  seed  merchandising. 

Elective  practicums  give  opportunity  to  gain  practical  experience. 
to  acquire  greater  manual  dexterity  in  doing  farm  work,  to  secure 
practice  in  conducting  experiments,  and  to  gain  experience4  in  teaching 
agricultural  subjects. 

Agronomy  is  taught  in  dairy  hall  (Pi.  VII,  tig.  1)  in  temporary 
quarters  which  include  one  good  recitation  room,  offices,  and  laboratory 
room.  There1  is  also'  a  seed-breeding  laboratory  which  furnishes 
facilities  for  special  instruction  in  field  seeds  and  in  laboratory  work 
in  plant  breeding.  The  college  possesses  a  stereopticon  with  several 
hundred  lantern  slides,  including  illustrations  of  crops,  implements, 
machinery,  processes  of  drainage,  etc.;  imported  models  of  wheat  and 
of  clover  flowers  and  seeds;  many  charts  of  root  systems  and  illustra- 
tions of  floral  organs  which  have  been  drawn  at  this  institution;  also 
maps  and  designs  of  farm  plans,  both  for  laying  out  new  farms  and 
for  reorganizing  old  ones.  Several  hundred  pasteboard  boxes  2± 
inches  long,  13  inches  wide  and  5  inches  high,  such  as  tailors  use  for 
suit  boxes,  are  annually  filled  with  bundles  of  weeds,  grasses,  and  forage 
crops.  These  serve  in  the  classes  for  material  to  tear  apart,  examine 
the  seeds,  and  get  acquainted  with  the  general  appearance.  Seeds  are 
also  preserved  in  bottles.  The  collection  of  farm  machinery  in  use  at 
the  university  farm  is  supplemented  by  collections  on  exhibition  at  the 
State  fair  grounds,  adjoining  the  farm,  and  at  warehouses  in  St.  Paul 
and  Minneapolis. 

One  unique  feature  of  the  office  equipment  is  a  special  index  filing 
case.  Here  are  collected  newspaper  clippings,  manuscripts,  and 
references  to  literature  in  the  library.  These  are  put  on  sheets, 
5J  by  8i  inches,  separated  by  division  cards,  and  arranged  under  a 
scheme  similar  to  that  used  by  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  in 
classifying  special  index  cards  of  the  station  literature.  This  filing 
case  now  contains  much  material  and  is  referred  to  constantly  by  stu- 
dents in  the  college  course  in  writing  essays  and  theses  in  connection 
with  their  class  work.  Each  student  who  writes  a  thesis  on  a  farm 
crop  or  other  subject  is  required  to  furnish  a  copy  for  this  tiling  case, 
and  to  include  any  bibliography  he  has  been  able  to  collect  on  that 
subject.  Thus  the  students  are  assisting  in  building  up  the  contents 
of  this  tiling  case  and  it  is  recognized  by  them  as  very  valuable. 

No  text-books  are  as  yet  in  use,  instruction  being  given  almost 
entirely  by  lectures.  The  agricultural  library  now  contains  (>,000 
books  and  about  6,000  pamphlets,  including  reports  and  bulletins. 
Aside  from  the  large  number  of  pamphlets  and  other  publications  of 
the  different  agricultural  institutions  and  societies,  a  large  number  of 
the  more  important  technical  and  agricultural  magazines  are  kept  on 
file,  bringing  together  all  the  agricultural  literature  of  any  importance.. 


tl.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bui.  127,  Office  of  Expt.  Stations. 


Plate  VII. 


Fig.  1  .—University  of  Minnesota— Dairy  Hall. 


1 


Fig.  2.— University  of  Minnesota— Emasculating  and  Cross  Pollinating  Wheat. 


U.  S.  Dept  of  Agr.,  Bui.  127,  Office  of  Expt.  Stations. 


Plate  VIII. 


Fig.  1  .—University  of  Minnesota— Centgener  Thrashing  Machine  and  Fanning- 
mill  Separator  in  Use  in  the  Field  Crop  Nursery. 


Fig.  2.— University  of  Minnesota— Machine  for  Planting  Grain  in  Nursery  Beds. 


51 

The  university  farm  contains  250  acres  of  land,  of  which  about  150 
acres  are  devoted  to  experiment  station  and  college  of  agriculture 
work.  The  soil  is  a  mixture  of  clay  and  sand,  and  is  well  adapted  to 
the  various  uses  to  which  it  is  put.  On  the  portion  of  the  farm  used 
by  the  college  and  station  there  are  many  experiments  in  farm  manage- 
ment, rotation  of  crops,  treatment  of  pastures,  improvement  of  crops 
by  breeding  (PL  VII,  tig.  2),  etc.  In  the  plant  breeding  experiments 
there  are  annually  planted  nearly  300,000  individual  plants,  including 
grains,  clovers,  root  crops,  etc.,  and  for  much  of  this  work  special 
machinery  has    been    devised    (tig.    7    and    PI.    VIII,   figs.   1    and    2). 


Fig.  7. — Centrifugal  seed-grading  machine 


Students  who  make  a  specialty  of  agronomy  assist  in  these  experi- 
ments. Farms  in  the  vicinity  serve  as  a  basis  for  designing  farm 
plans  and  working  out  problems  in  farm  management. 

THE    UNIVERSITY    OF   NEBRASKA. 

The  industrial  college  of  the  University  of  Nebraska  offers  several 
four-year  agricultural  groups  (courses)  leading  to  the  degree  of  bach- 
elor of  science — a  technical  group,  a  general  group,  and  two  special 
groups.  The  technical  group  is  intended  for  graduates  of  the  three- 
year  course  in  the  school  of  agriculture.  "The  studies  in  the  general 
groups  are  arranged  to  meet  the  needs  and  requirements  of  those 
students  whose  primary  object  is  a  broad  and  general  education." 
Those  in  the  special  groups  are  for  students  "  fitting  themselves  to  be 
instructors  in  agricultural  subjects  or  to  be  experiment-station  work- 
ers." and  "have  been  planned  and  coordinated  to  enable  students  to 
direct  their  work  so  as  to  meet  their  individual  needs  and  preferences." 
Candidates  for  admission  to  the  general  and  special  groups  must  pre- 
sent certificates  from  accredited  schools,  academies,  or  colleges,  or 
must  pass  examinations  (1)  on  the  following  required  subjects:  English, 
four  years  of  language  (ancient  or  modern  or  both),  algebra  through 


52 

logarithms,  plane  and  solid  geometry,  and  elementary  botany,  chemis- 
try, and  physics;  and  (2)  on  a  sufficient  number  of  the  following  sub- 
jects for  a  total  of  11  credits:  Language,  history,  manual  training, 
physical  science,  natural  science,  plane  trigonometry,  mechanical 
drawing,  physiology  and  hygiene,  physiography,  civics,  and  political 
economy. 

"All  the  courses  in  the  first  year  of  residence  are  prescribed,  and 
form  the  common  bases  of  both  the  general  and  the  special  groups 
offered."  The  courses  included  in  this  year  and  the  number  of  hours 
per  week  for  each  course  are  mathematics  ."».  modern  language 4,  phys- 
ics 3,  English  2,  chemistry  2,  military  drill  1.  The  work  in  chemistry 
includes  "'a  careful  study  of  the  occurrence,  methods  of  preparation, 
and  properties  of  the  common  elements  and  their  chief  compounds." 
After  the  first  year  the  course-  are  mostly  elective.  At  least  4o  per 
cent  of  the  work  of  the  last  three  year-  is  taken  in  agriculture  and 
chemistry  or  agriculture  and  botany,  but  "no  student  shall  take  or 
receive  credit  for  more  than  forty  hour-*  work  in  any  department 
during  his  undergraduate  course." 

Agronomy  at  the  University  of  Nebraska  "includes  on  the  instruc- 
tional side  the  subjects  of  soils,  field  crops,  farm  management,  and  the 
care  and  use  of  farm  machinery."  The  course  in  soils  includes  the 
following:  The  origin,  deposition,  and  natural  transportation  of  soils; 
physical  and  chemical  constitution  of  soils  and  subsoils;  influence  of 
tin-  size  of  -nil  grains  on  the  rate  of  solution  of  plant  food,  drainage, 
aeration,  water  storage,  capillarity,  etc.;  forms  in  which  water  exists 
in  soils;  movement  of  water  in  the  soil;  soil  temperatures;  evapora- 
tion of  water  from  the  soil:  methods  of  soil  treatment  for  conserva- 
tion of  soil  moisture;  the  significance  of  a  chemical  analysis  of  soil: 
fixation  of  fertilizing  materials;  nitrification;  availability  of  plant 
food;  tillage,  reasons' for  tillage,  effect  of  drifting,  effect  of  plow- 
ing wet  or  dry  soil;  subsoil  plowing,  water-holding  power  of  loose 
and  compact  soils;  disking,  listing,  etc.:  the  application  of  barnyard 
and  green  manure-  and  commercial  fertilizers.  Given  by  the  profes- 
sor of  agriculture. 

This  is  followed  by  "field  crops,  their  general  composition  and  their 
relation  to  the  air  and  soil;  useful  and  essential  ingredients  of  the  ash 
of  plants:  functions  of  the  ash  constituents  of  plants  and  the  forma- 
tion of  plant  substance;  function-  of  the  roots,  stems,  and  leaves  of 
plant-:  the  breeding  of  cereals;  a  treatment  of  each  of  the  principal 
field  crop-,  somewhat  according  to  the  following  scheme:  Characteris- 
tics, varieties,  vitality,  climate,  -oil.  manures,  tillage,  -ceiling,  culti- 
vation, harvesting,  preservation,  position  in  rotation,  uses.  Given  by 
the  professor  of  agriculture." 

Following  these  two  courses  i-  a  laboratory  course  in  the  "Proper- 
ties of  soils."  continuing  throughout  the  year  and  given  by  the  prc- 
3or  of  agriculture  and  the  instructor  in  agriculture. 


U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bi      'l-    ;-'■  .•    jf  E     -    Stal 


Plate  IX. 


U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bui.  127,  Office  of  Expi.  Stations. 


Plate  X. 


\ 

~ 

1 

1 

^f 

■fl   —  - 

1 

i  ^     tt- 

i| 

^Ta 

mmi     w 

**  5  J 

f     A 

HI 

Fig.  1.— University  of  Nebraska— Field  Crops  Laboratory,  Students  Judging 

Seed  Corn. 


Fig.  2.— University  of  Nebraska— Soils  Laboratory. 


U    S.  Dent   of  Agr..  Bui.   127,  Office  of  Expt    Stations. 


Plate  XI. 


Fig.  1.— University  of  Nebraska— Apparatus  for  Making  Determinations  of  Soil 

Moisture. 


Fig   2.— University  of  Nebraska— Experiment  Plats. 


U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bui    127,  Office  of  Expt.  Statu 


Plate  XII 


Fig.  1  .—University  of  Nebraska— Seed  Laboratory. 


Fig.  2.— University  of  Nebraska— Corner  in  the  Seed  Storeroom. 


53 


Elective  courses  are  offered  as  follows: 

"  Methods  of  investigation  with  soils.  A  study  in  detail  of 
reported  experiments,  the  object  being-  to  familiarize  the 
student  with  the  methods  of  scientific  investigation  in  the 
subject  under  discussion. 

"Methods  of  investigation  with  field  crops.  Conducted 
similarly  to  the  above. 

"'Plant  food  in  the  soil;  a  series  of  pot  experiments. 

"Production  and  movement  of  crops  as  affecting  prices. 

•'Sugar-beet  culture.  History  of  the  culture  of  the  sugar 
beet.  Effect  upon  general  agriculture  of  sugar-beet  culture. 
Varieties  of  the  sugar  beet.  Types.  Composition  and  struc- 
ture of  the  beet  plant.  Soils  and  climatic  conditions  adapted 
to  raising  sugar  beets.  Preparation  of  the  soil.  Planting  the 
seed.  Cultivation.  Harvesting.  Siloing-.  Seed  pro- 
duction; breeding,  establishing*  of  strain.  Position  of 
the  beet  crop  in  the  system  of  crop  rotation. 

' '  The  laboratory  work  [in  soils]  consists  of  the  follow- 
ing- demonstrations:  Determination  of  specific  gravity 
of  soils;  determination  of  the  volume  weight  of  soils: 
power  of  loose  soils  to  retain  moisture;  the  power  of 
compact  soils  to  retain  moisture;  rate  of  per- 
colation of  water  through  soils :  rate  of  perco- 
lation of  air  through  soils;  effect  of  mulches 
on  evaporation  of  water  from  soils;  behavior 
of  the  soil  toward  gases;  capillary  attraction 
of  the  soil ;  the  power  of  soils  to  fix  ammonia." 

Instruction  for  students  in  these  courses  is 
by  means  of  lectures  and  laboratory  practice, 
using  books  of  reference  throughout  almost 
the  entire  course.  In  the  study  of  field  crops 
the  experiment  station  publications  are  used 
very  freely.  Students  fitting  themselves  to 
be  instructors  in  agricultural  subjects  or  to 
be  experiment  station  workers  are  given 
every  opportunity  to  study  the  methods  of 
agricultural  investigations  at  the  agricultural 
experiment  station  farm. 

Class  rooms  and  laboratories  used  for  in- 
struction in  agronomv  are  in  the  general  asrri- 
cultural building(Pl.  IX).  One  class  room.  33 
by  20  feet  (PI.  X,  fig.  1),  contains  specimens 
of  plants,  seeds,  etc. .  used  for  purposes  of  in- 
struction in  field  crops.  One  laboratory,  33 
by  20  feet  (PL  X.  fig.  2),  is  used  for  demon- 
strations   of   various    properties    of    soils. 


C 


B 


lA 


Fig.  8.— Movable  soil  thermometer: 
A,  hollow  steel  tube,  i  inch  inter- 
nal diameter.  15  inches  long:  B, 
solid  steel  plunger,  19  inches^long, 
which  closely  tits  the  tube  A;  C, 
long  stem  (18  inches  i  thermome- 
ter which  closelv  rits  the  tube  A. 


54 


This  laboratory  is  provided  with  desks,  water,  gas,  etc.,  and  any  bo 

considered  a  well-equipped  laboratory.  The  desks  are  :-:',  feet  high 
and  i  feel  wide,  with  drawers  and  cupboards  on  both  sides  and  water 
and  gas  cocks  in  the  center.  The  apparatus  is  designed  to  record 
soil  temperatures  (fig.  8),  to  take 
samples  of  soils  (fig.  9),  to  deter- 
mine soil  moist ure  (PL  XI.  fig.  1), 
and  to  test  a  number  of  prop- 
erties of  different  soils,  for  in- 
stance, the  water-holding  power 
of  loose  and  compact  soils,  tin4 
rate  of  percolation  of  air  through 
soils,  and  certain  other  physical 
properties,  some  of  the  apparatus 
for  which  was  designed  by  Pro- 
fessorGibbs,  formerly  of  the  Ohio 
State  University. 

About  50acresof  land  are  used 
for  purposes  of  instruction,  al- 
though other  land  used  for  exper 


fig.  y.— Soil-sampling  apparatus:  A,  hollow  steel  sampling  tube,  J  inch  internal  diameter,  45  inches 
long,  marked  every  3  inches;  15,  solid  Bteel  rod,  461  Inches  long,  which  closely  fits  A;  C,  ejector; 
l).  driving  head  for  sampling  tube;  E,  aluminum  cans  for  soil  samples;  P,  case  for  sample  cans. 

mentation  may  also  be  considered  as  a  part  of  the  instructional 
equipment  (PL  XI.  fig.  *2).  Forty  acres  are  divided  into  subfields  of 
exactly  .">  acres  each.  These  fields  are  not  fenced,  hut  are  divided  by 
roadways,  the  land  occupied  by  which  is  not  a  part  of  the  5-aere  tracts, 


55 


The  roadways  are  1  rod  wide.  Four  of  the  subfields  are  severally  in 
rotations,  intended  to  demonstrate  the  effect  of  manuring  and  of  period- 
ically seeding  to  grass.  For  instance,  subfields  C  and  H  are  each  year 
planted  to  the  same  crops  and  the  same  character  of  manure  applied 
in  equal  quantities,  the  only  difference  being  that  at  certain  intervals 
subfield  H  is  allowed  to  lie  in  grass  for  a  period  of  years,  while  subfield 
C  is  cropped  continuously.     The  following  is  the  rotation: 


Subfield  C 

Subfield  H. 

1898 

1899 

1900 

Oats 

1901 

190'' 

Corn  (top-dressing  of  manure  before 
plowing  up  Bromus  inermis). 

oats. 

1903 

1904 

1905 

Corn  (manured  in  winter). 

Subfields  D  and  I  are  in  similar  rotations,  except  that  subfield  D  does 
not  receive  any  manure  and  that  the  crops  grown  on  these  fields  are  not 
the  same  as  those  on  the  other  two  subfields  during  the  same  year.  The 
remainder  of  the  subfields  are  used  for  growing  new  and  not  generally 
grown  crops  or  for  particularly  good  varieties  or  strains  of  varieties 
of  common  crops.  In  another  field  are  10  acres  divided  into  plats  of 
one-fifth  acre,  and  each  of  these  is  planted  to  a  particular  perennial 
forage  plant  or  combination  of  such  plants.  These  are  mostly  grasses 
and  clovers.  They  serve  as  an  object  lesson  in  profitable  seeding  to 
pastures  and  meadows  in  this  region.  Hurdles  of  special  size  are 
provided  for  fencing  these,  so  that  any  one  of  them  may  be  pastured 
when  desired.  In  this  manner  the  pasturage  value  is  demonstrated. 
There  is  also  a  field  of  about  10  acres  divided  into  experiment  plats 
of  one-tenth  acre  each.  These,  although  primarily  for  experimenta- 
tion, are  also  of  value  for  purposes  of  instruction. 

For  instruction  in  implements  and  machinery,  there  are  walking, 
riding,  and  disk  plows;  breaking  plows;  disk,  spike,  acme,  and  spring- 
tooth  harrows;  subsurface  packer;  roller;  subsoilers;  press  drills; 
lister;  corn  planter;  mowers;  rake;  hay  loader;  hay  tedder;  binder; 
thrashing  machine,  etc.  There  are,  for  instruction  in  soils,  samples 
of  soils  from  nearly  a  hundred  different  localities  in  the  State.  These 
have  been  analyzed  mechanically  and  the  original  soil  and  its  constit- 
uent parts  arranged  in  small  vials  on  a  card  showing  the  percentage  of 
the  various  sized  particles.  There  is  a  collection  of  about  90  of  the 
native  grasses  in  the  State  and  some  200  specimens  of  grains  (PI.  XII, 
figs.  1  and  2). 

The  college  classes  in  soils  use  Snyder's  Chemistry  of  Soils  and 
Fertilizers,  but  the  course  is  given  largely  by  means  of  lectures.  In 
field  crops  frequent  use  is  made  of  Farmers'  Bulletins  and  State  agri- 
cultural society  reports,  and  of  Morrow  and  Hunt's  Soils  and  Crops  of 


56 

the  Farm.  The  principal  hooks  of  reference  for  classes  in  soils  are  Le 
(\>nte's  Elements  of  Geology,  Warington's  Chemical  and  Physical 
Properties  of  Soils.  Wahnschaffe's  Scientific  Examination  of  Soils, 
Johnson's  How  Crops  Feed,  Storer's  Agriculture,  and  Roberts's  Fer- 
tility of  the  Land:  for  classes  in  Held  crops,  the  publications  of  the 
various  experiment  stations  and  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture. 

The  agricultural  library  contains  complete  or  nearly  complete  sets 
of  the  Annals  of  Agriculture,  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  So- 
ciety of  England,  Transactions  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural 
Society  of  Scotland,  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Journal  of 
Agriculture,  Journal  fur  Landwirtschaft,  Centralblatt  fur  Agricultur- 
chemie,  Forschungen  auf  dem  Gebiete  der  Agricultur-Physik,  an 
almost  complete  set  of  the  publications  of  the  various  State  experi- 
ment stations,  and  a  fairly  complete  set  of  the  publications  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  There  is  also  a  fairly 
complete  collection  of  text-books  and  other  books  dealing  with  agri- 
culture in  a  general  or  special  way,  besides  tiles  of  the  more  important 
agricultural  newspapers.  Altogether,  in  that  section  of  the  library 
pertaining  to  agronomy  there  are  upward  of  1,500  volumes. 

OHIO  STATE  UNIVERSITY. 

The  four-year  course  in  agriculture  leading  to  the  degree  of  bachelor 
of  science  in  agriculture  is  given  in  the  College  of  Agriculture  and 
Domestic  Science  of  the  Ohio  State  University.  This  course  is 
designed  not  only  to  make  specially  trained  agriculturists,  but  also 
educated  men.  The  course  presupposes  that  a  young  man  has  had  a 
high  school  training  or  its  equivalent,  and  that  he  has  had  the  train- 
ing in  farm  matters  that  necessarily  comes  to  a  young  man  who  has 
lived  on  a  farm.  It  supplements  this  training,  but  does  not  displace 
it.  About  one-third  of  the  time  of  the  student  during  the  four  years 
is  or  may  be  devoted  to  language  (English  or  foreign),  history,  and 
economics;  about  one-third  to  pure  science,  and  one-third  to  technical 
or  professional  training.  Electives  in  the  senior  year  allow  for  some 
variation  in  this  regard. 

Applicants  for  admission  to  this  course  must  be  at  least  16  years  of 
age  and  have  graduated  at  a  State  normal  school,  or  approved  high  or 
preparatory  school,  or  have  passed  examinations  in  the  following  sub- 
jects: English  grammar,  composition  and  rhetoric,  English  classics; 
arithmetic,  algebra,  plane  geometry;  descriptive  and  physical  geogra- 
phy, elementary  botany,  and  physics;  civil  government  or  general 
history;  and  Latin  (grammar  and  four  books  of  Caesar),  or  French 
(grammar  and  simple  reading  and  translating),  or  German  (grammar 
and  reading,  not  less  than  ')<>()  pages). 

The  course  in  agronomy  is  given  during  the  third  or  junior  year  of 


57 

the  college  course  and  is  preceded  b\T  instruction  in  agricultural  chem- 
istry (during  the  first  and  second  years),  physiological  and  economic 
botany  and  vegetable  pathology  (during  the  first  year),  and  horticul- 
ture (during  the  second  year). 

In  chemistry  the  course  includes  lectures  and  laboratory  work  on 
the  principles  of  chemistry  and  chemical  nomenclature,  organic  chem- 
istry, and  the  application  of  chemistry  to  agriculture.  The  latter  is 
given  during  the  third  term  of  the  first  year  and  includes  the  following 
topics:  Ingredients  of  plants,  organic  and  inorganic,  essential  and  non- 
essential; sources  of  plant  food,  air,  and  soil;  nature  of  soil,  mechan- 
ical portion,  nutritive  portion,  assimilable,  and  reserve  plant  food; 
soil  exhaustion  and  amelioration;  barnyard  manure,  its  sources,  com- 
position, and  preservation;  commercial  fertilizers,  their  rational  use 
and  methods  of  determining  the  needs  of  soils.  In  the  second  year 
there  are  lectures  and  laboratory  work  on  the  industries  related  to 
agriculture  (e.  g. ,  manufacture  of  sugar,  starch,  vinegar,  and  liquors); 
and  the  analysis  of  fertilizers,  feeding  stuffs,  dairy  products,  sugar 
and  sugar  producing  plants,  fruits  and  vegetables,  water,  soils,  oils, 
fats,  grains,  etc.  The  lecture  rooms  and  laboratories  are  thoroughly 
equipped  with  apparatus  and  chemicals  for  the  use  of  instructors  and 
students. 

The  course  in  botan}'  includes  elementary,  physiological,  and  eco- 
nomic botany,  and  vegetable  pathology,  with  lectures  and  recitations 
three  times  a  week  and  laboratory  and  field  work  twice  a  week.  In 
economic  botany  the  student  receives  instruction  and  practice  in 
handling  the  microscope  and  has  the  opportunity  of  learning  much  of 
the  important  modern  methods  in  technique.  The  main  part  of  the 
course  in  vegetable  pathology  is  devoted  to  a  study  of  the  parasitic 
fungi  most  destructive  to  cultivated  plants,  and  the  means  of  their 
prevention  forms  the  last  part  of  the  course.  Instruction  in  botany 
is  given  in  the  botanical  building  which  contains  a  large  lecture  room, 
museum,  herbarium,  three  laboratory  rooms,  dark  room,  drying  room, 
storeroom,  and  offices.  The  lecture  room  will,  the  coming  }ear,  con- 
tain a  stereopticon  furnished  with  electric  light;  a  large  number  of 
charts,  many  of  them  colored  lithographic  photographs  and  mounted 
illustrative  specimens  are  the  principal  appliances  for  daily  class  work. 
In  this  room  are  placed  fifteen  of  the  more  important  popular  journals 
of  botany  for  the  use  of  students.  The  botanical  books  in  the  univer- 
sity library,  a  valuable  and  growing  collection,  are  largely  used  for 
reference  in  connection  with  the  several  courses.  The  museum  con- 
tains a  large  amount  of  illustrative  material;  the  native  medicinal 
plants  and  the  collection  of  Ohio  woods  being  very  complete.  The 
State  herbarium  consists  of  between  12,000  and  15,000  sheets  of  Ohio 
plants.  The  general  herbarium  is  about  the  same  size.  Professor 
Kellerman's  private  herbarium  of  20,000  specimens,  mostly  parasitic 


58 

fungi,  is  also  us^d  by  the  department.  The  large  laboratory  is  well 
equipped  with  dissecting  and  compound  microscopies;  also  the  usual 
appliances  for  doing  both  elementary  and  advanced  histological  work. 
One  of  the  small  laboratories  is  devoted  to  experimental  work  in  vege- 
table physiology  and  the  other  to  systematic  botany.  The  greenhouse 
attached  to  the  botanical  building  is  an  important  adjunct  to  the 
department.  There  are  four  sections  containing  a  total  of  nearly 
3,000  feet  of  glass.  It  contains  a  large  number  of  illustrative  plants, 
perhaps  3,000  specimens,  representing  the  principal  plant  families  and 
belonging  to  several  hundred  species.  The  greenhouse  furnishes  much 
fresh  material  for  laboratory  use.  It  is  also  used  as  a  laboratory  to 
carry  on  special  work  when  growing  plants  are  ws^d. 

The  courses  in  agronomy  are  given  by  the  professor  of  agriculture 
and  the  instructor  in  agronomy  and  include  two  elementary  courses 
during  the  second  and  third  terms  of  the  junior  year  and  two  advanced 
elective  courses  during  the  first  and  second  terms  of  the  senior  year. 
The  courses  in  the  order  in  which  they  must  be  taken  are  as  follows: 

Elementary  course  in  soils. — Lectures  and  recitations  three  times  a 
week  upon  the  origin,  formation,  kinds,  and  physical  properties  of 
soils  and  their  improvement  by  cultivation,  fertilization,  drainage,  and 
irrigation.  Practicum  once  a  wrek  in  laboratory,  testing  physical 
properties  of  several  soils;  determining  the  relation  of  soils  to  heat, 
moisture,  air,  and  fertilizers,  and  making  mechanical  analyses.  For  a 
detailed  description  of  the  laboratory  exercises  in  this  course,  see 
Exhibit  No.  7,  page  59. 

Elementary  course  in  farm  <■/■<>]>*. — Lectures  and  recitations  three 
times  a  week  upon  the  history,  production,  marketing,  cultivation, 
and  harvesting  of  farm  crops.  For  a  list  of  examination  questions 
indicating  the  scope  of  this  work,  set4  Exhibit  No.  !>.  page4  To.  Prac- 
ticum once  a  week  with  growing  and  dried  specimens  of  farm  crops, 
including  grasses,  clovers,  and  other  forage  crops,  A  list  of  labora- 
tory or  field  practicums  in  this  course  is  given  in  Exhibit  No.  1<». 
page  71. 

Advanced  course  in  soils. — Lectures  and  recitations  once  a  week  on 
the  physical  properties  of  soils;  the  relation  of  soils  to  heat.  air.  and 
moisture;  the  effect  of  fertilizers  on  soil  structure  and  fertility;  con- 
sideration of  practical  methods  of  tillage  as  affecting  crop  producing 
power  of  the  soil.  Laboratory  and  field  experiments  during  two  two- 
hour  periods  each  week.  A  detailed  schedule  of  laboratory  work  in 
this  course  is  given  in  Exhibit  No.  8,  page  69. 

Advanced  cpurse  in'  farm  <-r<>]>s.-  Lectures  and  recitations  once  a 
week  on  (<t)  the  effect  of  climate,  soil,  and  markets  on  the  distribution 
and  adaptation  of  farm  crops  in  the  United  States;  (//)  the  best  method 
of  crop  production,  including  a  careful  study   of   the  details  of   tield 


U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bui.  127,  Office  of  Expt.  Stations. 


Plate  XIII. 


59 

experimentation  as  set  forth  in  experiment  station  bulletins  and 
reports  and  the  publications  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture;  (c)  the  consumption  of  farm  crops.  Practicums  twice  a 
week. 

Instruction  in  these  courses  is  given  largely  by  means  of  lectures, 
but  frequent  use  is  made  of  such  text-books  as  The  Soil  and  the  Physics 
of  Agriculture,  by  King;  and  Soils  and  Crops  of  the  Farm,  by  Morrow 
and  Hunt;  and  of  bulletins,  monographs,  and  reports  issued  by  the 
experiment  stations  and  Departments  of  the  United  States  Government. 

Instruction  in  agronomy,  as  in  other  branches  of  agriculture,  is 
given  in  the  university  building  known  as  Townshend  Hall,  which  was 
completed  in  1898  at  a  cost  of  $100,000. 

Townshend  Hall  (PI.  XIII)  is  260  feet  long,  and  varies  in  width  from  64  to  78  feet. 
It  contains  two  stories  and  a  basement  which  is  14  feet  high,  making  the  building 
practically  three  stories  high.  The  walls  above  the  basement  line  are  of  gray  pressed 
brick.  The  basement  walls  and  the  front  entrance  are  of  Bedford,  Ind.,  Oolotic 
limestone,  and  the  trimmings  are  of  terra  cotta  of  the  same  color  as  the  brick.  The 
roof  is  of  dark-red  tile.  The  building  is  of  slow-burning  construction  throughout, 
with  painted  interior  brick  walls,  exposed  beams,  maple  floors,  and  hard  pine  finish. 
The  lecture  rooms  and  laboratory  for  the  course  in  agronomy  are  on  the  first  floor  of 
this  building. 

The  soil  physics  laboratory  is  supplied  with  apparatus  for  studying  the  specific 
gravity  of  soils;  volume  weight  of  soils;  power  of  loose  soil  to  retain  moisture;  power 
of  compact  soil  to  retain  moisture;  rate  of  flow  of  air  through  soils;  rate  of  percola- 
tion of  water  through  soils;  effect  of  mulches  on  evaporation  of  water  from  soils; 
effect  of  cultivation  on  evaporation  of  water  from  soils;  power  of  dry  soil  to  absorb 
moisture  from  the  air;  and  the  capillary  rise  of  water  through  soils.  Mechanical 
analyses  are  also  made  of  typical  soils. 

In  the  study  of  soils,  the  large  glass  house  with  its  equipment  of  railroad  tracks, 
trucks,  and  pots  affords  opportunity  tor  the  student  to  test  the  adaptability  of  crops 
to  various  soils;  the  fertilizer  requirements  of  soils  and  to  experiment  on  various 
other  problems  of  crop  growth. 

In  the  study  of  crops,  large  use  is  made  of  the  collection  of  dried  specimens  of 
grasses,  grains,  and  seeds.  The  grass  garden  contains  about  25  varieties  of  grasses 
and  clovers  growing  side  by  side  where  comparisons  may  be  made  as  to  the  value  of 
each  for  pasture,  meadow,  and  grass.  The  farm  is  visited  frequently  by  students 
who  make  observations  and  studies  of  the  practical  methods  there  employed  in  the 
growing  of  crops. 

Exhibit  No.  7. 

LABORATORY  WORK  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  COURSE  IN  SOILS. 

Experiments  are  arranged  with  reference  to  the  number  of  labora- 
tor}T  periods  in  the  term,  and  since  there  are  ten  to  twelve  periods,  12 
experiments  have  been  planned  which  are  described  on  the  following- 
pages.  The  experiments  are  designed  with  special  reference  to  the 
practical  demonstration  of  some  of  the  important  principles  underly- 
ing soil  physics,  and  to  supplement  class-room  teaching  with  actual 
work  with  the  soil  itself. 

The  following  soils  used  in  the  experiments  are  typical  agricultural 


60 

soils  selected  on  the  ( )liio  State  Universit}'  farm  with  reference  to  their 
differences  in  texture  and  crop  producing  power: 

No.  1.    Muck  soil.     Selected  from  a  very  fertile  cornfiejd. 

No.  2.    First  bottom  alluvial  loam.     Very  fertile. 

No.  3.   Second  bottom  sandy  loam  with  considerable  clay. 

No.  4.    Fine  sand  (0.25  millimeter  to  <>.  1  millimeter  in  diameter). 

No.  .'».   Coarse  sand  ((»..">  millimeter  to  <>.^r>  millimeter  in  diameter). 

The  soils  are  brought  from  the  fields  and  air-dried  in  the  laboratory. 
Numbers  1  to  3  are  sifted  through  a  2-millimeter  sieve  having  circular 
holes,  and  numbers  4  and  5  through  liner  sieves.  The  soils  are  then 
placed  in  numbered  bins  in  the  laboratory. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  laboratory  experiments  with  descrip- 
tions and  illustrations  of  each: 

Experiment  No.  1. 

DETERMINATION    OF    SPECIFIC    GRAVITY    OF    SOILS. 

,  This  experiment  shows  weights  of  the  various  soils  as  compared  with  the  weights 
of  equal  volumes  of  water.  The  specific  gravity  of  most  soils  is  about  2.5 — that  is, 
soil  calculated  free  of  air  space  weighs  2.5  times  as  much  as  an  equal  volume  of 


Fig.  10.— Apparatus  for  determining  specific  gr 


water.  The  more  organic  matter  a  soil  contains  the  less  its  specific  gravity.  In 
general,  tin-  specific  gravity  of  a  soil  decreases  inversely  as  its  content  of  organic 
matter.*  Specific  gravity  must  not  be  confused  with  apparent  specific  gravity,  which 
will  be  explained  in  experiment  No.  -. 

With  a'  flask  of  50  cubic  centimeters  capacity  and  provided  with  a  ground-glass 
stopper,  drawn  out  to  an  open  capillary  tube  (fig.  10k  determine  specific  gravity  of 
four  soils  which  will  he  provided      Nos.  1,  2,  8,  and  4. 

Fill  flask  with  distilled  water  so  that  no  air  bubbles  appear  after  the  ground-glass 
Stopper  i-  hist  rted.      Note  temperature  of  water  in  tlask.      Wipe  ilask  dry  and  weigh. 


6] 

Pour  out  about  one-hall  of  the  water  in  the  flask  and  put  in  a  weighed  quantity  (10 
grams)  of  the  soil,  which  has  been  previously  dried  at  110°  C.  for  twenty-four  hours. 
Place  the  flask  in  a  shallow  water  bath  and  boil  for  two  minutes  in  order  to  drive  out 
the  soil  air.  Fill  the  flask  with  distilled  water  and  bring  to  the  same  temperature  at 
which  the  previous  weight  was  taken.  Weigh.  (See  that  fiask  is  full  when  weight 
i-  taken. 

nijriihtii,,,,. — Add  weight  of  soil  used  to  weight  of  Mask  rilled  with  water  and  deduct 
therefrom  weight  of  flask  filled  with  water  and  soil.  The  difference  expresses  the 
weight  of  a  volume  of  water  equal  to  the  quantity  of  soil  used. 

The  specific  gravity  is  found  by  dividing  the  weight  of  the  soil  taken  by  the  weight 
of  the  water  it  has  displaced. 

K.'[»  rum  nt  N6.    .'. 

DETERMINATION    OF    THE    VOLUME    WEIGHT,    APPARENT    SPECIFIC    GRAVITY,    AND    POROSITY 

OF    SOILS. 

Determine  the  volume  weight  of  four  soils.  Nob.  1.  2,  :;.  and  4.  Weigh  the  empty 
tubes  I  fig.  1 1  carefully.  Tse  the  soil  direct  from  the  bins  and  pour  into  the  tube  the 
measure  level  full.     Then  place  the  tube  in  the  compacting   machine  trig.  12)  and 


Fig.  11. — Determination  oi  volume  weight,  apparent  specific  gravity,  and  porosity  of  - 

allow  the  weight  to  fall  six  times  from  the  12-inch  mark.  Pour  in  another  measure 
of  soil  and  repeat.  Continue  this  until  the  tube  is  filled  to  the  mark  near  the  top. 
Weigh.  Determine  at  the  same  time  with  a  special  sample  the  hygroscopic  water 
which  escapes  at  110°  C.  Also  determine  the  number  of  cubic  inches,  or  centimeters, 
occupied  by  the  soil  in  each  tube. 

Calculations. — Subtract  the  weight  of  the  empty  tube  plus  the  weight  of  hydro- 
scopic water  in  the  soil  used  from  the  weight  of  the  filled  tube.  This  will  be  the 
weight  of  the  given  volume  of  soil.  The  volume  weight  of  a  cubic  centimeter  of  soil 
should  then  be  calculated. 

By  dividing  the  volume  weight  of  the  soil  with  the  weight  of  the  same  volume  of 
water,  the  apparent  specific  gravity  of  the  soil  is  obtained. 

By  dividing  this  apparent  specific  gravity  with  the  real  specific  gravity  of  the  soil 
obtained  in  experiment  No.  1.  and  substracting  from  100,  the  remainder  expresses 


62 


the  per  uent  of  porosity  of  the  soil,  i.  e.,  the  space  which,  in  the  dry  soil,  is  occupied 

by  air. 
The  volume  weight  of  a  soil  varies  with  the  amount  of  packing.     A  freshly  plowed 

soil  is  much  lighter  per  cubic  foot  than  the  same  soil  packed  by  rains  or  by  tramping. 

In  otb,er  words,  soil  has  an  apparent  and  a  real  specific  gravity.    Average  lield  soils  in 

good  tilth  have  an  apparent  specific  gravity 
of  about  1.2,  and  when  entirely  free  from 
air.  a  real  specific  gravity  of  about  2.5. 

The  compacting  machine  referred  to 
above  was  designed  to  pack  all  the  soils 
into  the  tubes  uniformly  ami  thus  elimi- 
nate, in  a  large  degree,  the  error  due  to 
unequal  packing  in  different  tubes  when 
making  comparisons  of  apparent  specific 
gravity  of  different  soils.  The  machine 
does  not  do  the  work  with  absolute  exact- 
ness, but  seems  to  be  a  decided  improve- 
ment over  the  uncertain  method  of  filling 
by  hand,  which  at  best  gives  very  unsatis- 
factory results. 

Experiment  No.  •*'. 

THE    POWEB    OP    LOOSE    SOILS   To    RETAIN 
MOISTURE. 

Use  soils  Nos.  2,  3,  4,  and  5  in  this  ex- 
periment. Place  disks  of  damp  cheese 
cloth  in  the  bottom  of  the  tubes  (fig.  13) 
and  then  weigh  the  tubes  carefully  on  the 
torsion  balance.  Fill  the  tubes  up  to  the 
mark,  1  inch  from  the  top.  by  pouring  the 
soil  in  gently,  leaving  the  soil  in  the  tubes 
in  a  very  loose  condition,  with  much  air 
Space  throughout  the  mass.  Weigh  the 
filled  tubes.  Place  the  filled  tubes  in  the 
empty  galvanized  iron  box.  Tour  water 
in  the  box  until  the  water  level  almost 
reaches  the  tops  of  the  tubes,  thus  allow- 
ing the  water  to  percolate  up  through  tin- 
soils.  When  the  water  level  in  the  tubes 
comes  i i J >  to  the  level  of  the  water  in  the 
box  remove  the  tubes  and  place  them  in 
the  frame,  where  the  water  is  allowed  to 
percolate  out  of  them.  ( ilass  plates  should 
be  placed  over  the  tops  of  the  tubes  to 
prevent  evaporation.  The  tubes  should 
be  weighed  from  day  to  day  until  the 
minimum  weight  is  reached — until  perco- 
lation ceases. 
The  difference  in  weight  between  the  tubes  filled  with  dry  soil  and  the  wet  soil  will 
be  the  amount  of  water  retained  by  the  loose  soil,  [n  order  to  get  the  total  water 
content  of  the  wet  soil,  it  is  necessary  to  add  to  this  the  weight  of  hygroscopic  water 
which  the  dry  soil  contained.  The  hydroscopic  water  of  the  dry  soil  should  be 
determined  with  a  special  sample  taken  at  the  time  the  tubes  are  tilled. 


12.— Soil-compacting  machine. 


63 

Calculate  the  total  number  of  pounds  of  water  retained  per  cubic  fool  of  dry  soil 
and  also  the  number  of  surface  inches  of  water  it  represents. 

This  experiment  illustrates  the  power  of  different  types  of  loose  soil  to  retain 
water.  One  of  the  advantages  of  cultivating  soil  is  to  make  it  loose  in  structure  so 
that  rain  will  be  absorbed  and  retained  more  thoroughly  than  would  be  the  case  if 
the  soil  were  uncultivated.  Study  results  from  this  experiment  in  connection  with 
those  of  experiment  Xo.  4  for  compact  soil. 

Experinu  nt  Xo.  4. 

THE    POWER    OF    COMPACT    SOILS    TO    RETAIN    MOISTDBE. 

Use  soils  Xos.  2,  :'>,  4,  anil  5  in  this  experiment.  Place  disks  of  moist  cheese  cloth 
in  the  bottom  of  the  tubes  (rig.  13).  Weigh  and  then  till  within  1  inch  of  the  top 
in'the  following  mannner:  Pour  in  1  measure  of  soil.  Place  cylinder  in  compacting 
machine  and  drop  weight  six  times  from  the  12-inch  mark.  Pour  in  another  meas- 
ure and  repeat.     Continue  this  until  cylinder  is  filled  within  1  inch  of  the  top. 


Place  the  tilled  tubes  in  the  empty  galvanized  iron  box.  Pour  Mater  in  the  box 
until  the  water  level  almost  reaches  the  tops  of  the  tubes,  thus  allowing  the  water  to 
percolate  up  through  the  soils.  When  the  water  level  in  the  tubes  comes  up  to  the 
level  of  the  water  in  the  box  remove  the  tubes  and  place  them  in  the  frame  where 
the  water  is  allowed  to  percolate  out  of  them.  Glass  plates  should  be  placed  over 
the  tops  of  the  tubes  to  prevent  evaporation.  The  tubes  should  be  weighed  from 
day  to  day  until  the  minimum  weight  is  reached — until  percolation  ceases. 

The  difference  in  weight  between  the  tubes  tilled  with  dry  soil  and  the  wet  soil  will 
be  the  amount  of  water  retained  by  the  compact  soil.  In  order  to  get  the  total  water 
content  of  the  wet  soil  it  will  be  necessary  to  add  to  this  the  weight  of  hygroscopic 
water  which  the  dry  soil  contained.  The  hygroscopic  water  of  the  dry  soil  should 
be  determined  with  a  special  sample  at  the  time  the  tubes  are  filled. 

Calculate  the  total  number  of  pounds  of  water  retained  per  cubic  foot  of  dry  soil 
and  also  the  number  of  surface  inches  of  water  it  represents. 

This  experiment  illustrates  the  power  of  different  types  of  compact  soil  to  retain 
water. 

The  results  of  this  experiment  should  be  studied  in  connection  with  those  of 
experiment  Xo.  3. 


64 

/•.' if,,  riim  nt  .\".  ■  '>. 
RATE   OF    PERCOLATION    OF    WATER   THROUGB    BOILS. 

The  scries  of  tubes  i  fig  14  i  having  been  filled  within  1  inch  of  the  overflow  pipes 
with  soils  Nbs.  1,  2,  .">,  -I.  and  5,  the  compacting  machine  is  used. 

Alter  eaeli  measure  of  soil  was  put  in  the  weight  is  dropped  twice  from  the  6-inch 
mark.  The  surface  of  the  soil  in  each  tube  is  covered  with  1  inch  of  coarse  gravel 
t<>  prevent  the  soil  being  disturbed  by  flowing  water. 

See  that  all  tubes  arc  connected  by  rubber  tubing  ami  the  extreme  ends  of  small 
tubea  corked. 

Pour  in  distilled  water  gently  and  keep  the  cylinders  almost  level  full.  After  the 
flow  into  the  glass  flasks  has  become  uniform,  note  the  number  of  cubic  centimeters 
which  flow  through  in  half  an  hour.  Determine  this  by  measuring  in  a  graduated 
cylinder. 


]'ii..  14.— Rate  of  percolation  of  water  through  soils. 

The  character  of  soils  used  may  be  examined  in  the  boxes  in  the  laboratory.  The 
tubes  are  numbered  to  correspond  with  the  soil  numbers. 

.This  experiment  brings  out  the  differences  between  soils  in  regard  to  the  rate  of 
percolation  of  water  through  them.  Other  things  equal,  it  is  desirable  that  a  soil 
should  allow  water  to  pass  through  slowly,  holding  moisture  the  greatest  length  of 
time  within  the  reach  of  crop  roots. 

Experiment  No.  6. 


RATE   oK    FLOW    OF    AI  It   THROUGB    soirs. 

Soils  N'os.  1.  2,  :;.  1,  and  5  are  used  iii  this  experiment.  The  cylinder  numbers 
correspond  with  the  soil  numbers. 

The  compacting  machine  was  used  in  tilling  the  cylinders  (tig.  15).  After  each 
measure  of  soil,  the  weighl  was  dropped  three  times  from  the  12-inch  mark. 

Open  the  cock  on  the  copper  cylinder  and  detach  the  hook  holding  the  weights. 

Allow  the  copper  cylinder  to  sink  by  its  own  weight.  Attach  the  rubber  tube  to 
soil  tube  No.  1.  Attach  the  weight  hook  and  note  the  number  of  degrees  passed  by 
the  pointer  in  1<i  minutes  or  a  longer  time,  if  it  bo  necessary  in  case  of  the  fine- 
grained soils.  Record  the  weight  for  each  of  the  live  soils,  calculating  the  weight  per 
hour. 


65 


This  experiment  has  a  direct  practical  bearing  on  the  question  of  soil  ventilation. 
Soil  air  is  essential  to  the  life  of  nitrifying  and  other  bacteria  which  develop  fertility. 
Other  things  equal,  the  more  readily  soil  will  allow  air  to  circulate  through  it,  the 
more  favorable  conditions  will  be  for  the  formation  of  plant  food. 


•  -  Fig.  15.— Apparatus  to  determine  the  rate  of  flow  of  air  through  soils. 

Experiment  No.  7. 

EFFECT    OF    MULCHES    <>.\     EVAPORATION    OF    WATER    FROM    SOILS. 

The  cylinders  (tig.  16)  are  IS  inches  deep  by  4  inches  in  diameter,  and  are  tilled 
with    first    bottom    soil    from    the    Ohio    State    University    farm.     The   compacting 


Fig.  10.— Soil  tubes  for  showing  the  effect  of  mulches  on  evaporation  of  water  from  soils. 

machine  was  used  in  tilling  the  cylinders  to  insure  comparatively  uniform  compact- 
ness of  soil  in  all  cylinders. 

No.  1.  Not  mulched. 

No.  2.  Not  mulched. 

No.  3.  Surface  cultivated  2  inches  deep.     (Soil  mulch). 

No.  4.  Surface  cultivated  2  inches  deep.     (Soil  mulch). 

No.  5.   Mulched  with  2  inches  of  coarse  gravel. 

No.  (>.  Mulched  with  2  inches  of  fine  sand. 

No.  7.  Mulched  with  2  inches  of  sawdust. 

No.  S.   Mulched  with  2  inches  of  cut  straw. 


66 

No.  9.  Not  mulched.     (Placed  in  draft). 
No.  1".  Not  mulched.     (Placed  in  draft  . 

Fill  the  cylinders  to  the  same  level  with  distilled  water  every  twenty-four  hours 
for  one  week  and  keep  a  careful  record  of  the  amount  of  water  used  each  day.  The 
•■>"'  glass  tube  (a,  fig.  16)  will  be  used  to  determine  the  exact  level  to  which  the 
tubes  should  he  idled. 

The  cylinder  which  evaporated  the  least  water  during  the  period  of  observation 
should  he  the  one  having  the  most  effective  mulch. 

In  recording  results  show  the  amount  of  water  put  in  each  cylinder  daily,  and  also 
the  total  amount  for  each  cylinder  for  the  entire  run  of  the  experiment. 

Experivu  ni  No,  8. 

THE    POWER   or    AIR-DRY    sou.    TO    ABSORB    MOISTURE    PROM    THE    AIR. 

Qse  soils  Nos.  1.  2,  3,  and  4in  this  experiment.  Place  400  grams  of  air-dry  soil  from 
the  bin  in   a  shallow  zinc  tray  (fig.  17),  spreading  it  out  as  uniformly  as  possible. 


Fig.  17.— Determining  the  power  of  air-dry  soils  tu  absorb  moisture  from  the  air 


After  weighing  the  tray  (lid  on)  with  the  soil,  place  an  empty  weighed  box,  together 
with  the  others  i  lids  off),  upon  a  shelf  in  the  pneumatic  trough.  Place  a  thermome- 
ter in  the  trough  and  at  each  weighing  read  the  temperature.  Weigh  each  box  (lid 
on)  every  twenty-four  hours  and  deduct  the  increase  in  weight  of  the  empty  box 
from  the  increase  in  weight  of  each  of  the  other  boxes.  Repeal  the  weighings  every 
twenty-four  hours  until  with  the  same  conditions  of  temperature  an  approximately 
constant  weight  is  obtained.  The  moisture  retained  is  calculated  for  100  grams  of  the 
soil  dried  at  110°  ('.  Add  to  this  increased  weight  per  LOO  grams  of  air-dry  soil  the 
weight  of  hygroscopic  water  contained  in  100  grams  of  the  air-dry  soil.  This  will 
give  the  total  amount  of  water  taken  from  the  air  by  loo  grams  of  water-free  soil. 

Determine  the  hygroscopic  moisture  of  each  soil  with  a  special  sample  at  the  time 
of  Starting  the  experiment. 

This  experiment  brings  out  the  fact  that  dry  soils  absorb  only  a  very  small  amount 
of  moisture  from  the  air,  even  when  the  air  is  saturated,  thus  correcting  an  opinion 
which  is  prevalent  hut  erroneous. 


67 

Experiment  Xo.  9. 


A    STUDY    OF    THE    RATE    OF    RISE    OF    CAPILLARY    WATER    IN    SOILS. 

Use  soils  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  4,  and  5  in  this  experiment.  Place  a  cheese-cloth  disk  in 
the  bottom  of  each  tube  (fig.  18)  to  prevent  the  escape  of  soil  grains.  Use  the  com- 
pacting machine  to  fill  the  tubes,  allowing  the  weight  to  drop  twice  from  the  12-inch 
mark  after  each  measure  of  soil.  Weigh  the  filled  tubes  carefully  and  place  them  in 
the  frame  with  the  lower  ends  standing  in  about  1  inch  of  distilled  water,  which 

should  be  maintained  at  constant  level. 
As  the  water  rises  by  capillarity  into  the 
soil  the  tubes  will  increase  in  weight. 
Weigh  the  tubes  carefully  each  day  for 
one  week,  noting  the  daily  increase  in 
each  tube  and  also  the  total  increase 
for  each  tube  for  the  period. 

Experiment 

ADHESIVENESS    OF    SOILS. 

In  this  experiment  soils  Xos.  1,  2,  3, 
and  4  will  be  used.  The  adhesiveness 
will  be  determined  by  measuring  the 


Fig.  18.— Measuring  capillarity  in  soils. 

force  required  to  overcome  the  molecular  attraction  in  a  column  of  moist  soil  1 
square  inch  in  cross  section. 

Weigh  out  roughly  150  grams  of  soil  Xo.  1  and  180  grams  each  of  Xos.  2,  3,  and  4. 

Determine  the  force  required  to  start  the  empty  movable  cage  (a)  by  running  sand 
from  the  rubber  tube  (6)  into  the  tin  pan  (c)  until  the  weight  is  sufficient  to  cause 
the  cage  to  move  (fig.  19).  See  to  it  that  the  cages  are  clean  and  the  bearings  clean 
and  oiled.  The  weight  of  the  pan  plus  the  sand  it  contains  represents  the  force 
required  to  overcome  the  friction  of  the  empty  cage,  and  should  be  deducted  from 
the  total  breaking  force  in  each  subsequent  test  of  soil. 

Empty  the  weighed  sample  of  soil  upon  the  "mixing  board"  and  add  a  small 
quantity  of  water.  Mix  soil  and  water  thoroughly  by  hand  working.  Enough 
water  should  be  added  to  bring  the  soil  to  its  maximum  adhesiveness. 

Pack  the  roll  of  mud  thus  formed  into  the  mold,  holding  the  cages  together  firmly; 
then  with  the  spatula  scrape  off  the  top  level  with  the  upper  edge  of  the  mold. 
Attach  the  pan  to  the  hook  at  the  end  of  the  wire.  Pour  sand  into  the  pan  in  a 
constant  stream  until  the  weight  is  sufficient  to  separate  the  cages  and  break  the  soil 
column.  Weigh  the  pan  with  the  sand  it  contains  and  deduct  therefrom  the  weight 
required  to  overcome  the  friction  of  the  empty  cage.  The  result  represents  the  adhe- 
sive strength  of  a  column  of  moist  soil  1  square  inch  in  cross  section. 


<;,s 


Can-  should  be  exercised  to  till  the  molds  as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  same  man- 
ner in  each  test. 

With  this  same  roll  of  mud  make  lour  tests,  using  varying  amounts  of  water.     The 
proportion  of  water  may  be  reduced  by  adding  more  dry  soil.      Teat  each  of  the  four 
types  of  soil  in  the  above  manner,  using  the  highest  test  of 
each  [or  comparisons  of  maximum  adhesiveness. 

Experiments  Nos.  11  and  12. 

MECHANICAL    ANALYSIS   OF   soil.>. 

A  modification  of  the  method  used  in  the  laboratory  of  the 
Bureau  of  Soils  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture.     (PI.  XIV,  fig.  1.) 

Twenty  grams  of  "fine  earth"  are  weighed  out  and  placed 
in  a  porcelain  or  glass  mortar.  Enough  water  is  added  to 
give  the  soil  the  consistency  of  paste.  The  mixture  is  then 
rubbed  with  a  rubber-tipped  pestle. 

In  rubbing  there  should  be  just  enough  pressure  to  detach 


Pig.  1'.'.  -Apparatus  for  testing  the  adhesiveness  of  soils. 


adhering  particles  and  not  enough  to  break  the  grains.  After  live  minutes'  rubbing 
more  water  may  lie  added,  and  after  letting  it  stand  for  two  or  three  minutes  the 
turbid  li.juid  is  decanted  into  a  beaker,  "A."  Repeat  this  pestling  and  decanting 
until  an  examination  through  the  microscope  shows  the  grains  to  be  perfectly  clean. 
When  clean  the  grains  show  sharp  outlines  and  are  transparent,  while  any  adhering 
finer  particles  make  them  round  and  deeply  colored.  This  pestling  may  require  15 
minute-  t"  ;ui  hour  or  more. 

When  the  material  is  thoroughly  disintegrated,  it  is  transferred  from  the  mortar 
to  a  No.  2  or  No.  :;  beaker,  which  is  then  tilled  with  water,  stirred  and  allowed  to 
stand  a  few  mi  nut.-,  after  which  it  is  carefully  decanted,  leaving  the  last  20  or  SOcubic 
centimeters,  the  Liquor  being  added  to  the  beaker  "A."  This  is  repeated  until  the* 
sand  is  free  from  clay,  line  silt,  and  much  of  the  silt.  The  sand  should  be  tested 
with  the  microscope.      All  particles  smaller  than  0.06  millimeter  are  silt  or  line  silt 


=  _^~E   XIV. 


••:-_-••-_■::   :r  5 :  _ 


• 

1 

A 

,  j^—    ,-r, 

..  — *.- 

F  :-    2.-0- 


se:    s  5:  _  D--s  :s 


(39 

and  should  be  removed  by  further  decantation.  The  sediment  in  the  bottom  of 
beaker  "A"  should  also  be  tested.  If  it  contains  particles  larger  than  0.05  milli- 
meter, the  washing  or  decantation  was  too  rapid.  In  this  case  a  recovery  must  be 
made. 

The  sand  is  transferred  from  the  beaker  to  a  porcelain  dish  and  dried.     It  is  then 
ignited  to  destroy  organic  matter,  after  which  it  is  sifted  through  a  nest  of  sieves  of 
1,  0.5,  0.25  and  0.1  millimeter,  respectively,  that  going  through  the  liner  sieve  being 
known  as  very  fine  sand.     These  live  separations 
are  weighed  together  before  the  sifting  and  sepa- 
rately after  sifting. 

The  amount  of  silt,  tine  silt,  and  clay  which  was 
•washed  away  from  the  sand  may  be  obtained  approx- 
imately by  subtracting  the  total  weight  of  sand, 
moisture,  and  organic  matter  from  the  earth  taken 
(20  grams  I. 

Considerable  time  and  skill  is  required  to  make 
the  separation  of  silt,  fine  silt,  and  clay.  It  will  not 
be  attempted  in  this  experiment. 


Fig.  20. — Card's  apparatus  for  testing  the  adhesiveness  of  soils. 

The  following  are  the  sizes  into  which  the  soil  particles  are  separated: 

No.  1.   Gravel.  2-1  millimeters. 

No.  2.  Coarse  sand,  1-0.5  millimeter. 

No.  3.  Medium  sand,  0.5-0.25  millimeter. 

No.  4.  Fine  sand,  0.25-0.1  millimeter. 

Xo.  5.  Very  fine  sand.  0.1-0.05  millimeter. 

No.  6.   Silt,  0.05-0.01  millimeter. 

No.  7.  Fine  silt,  0.01-0.005  millimeter. 

No.  8.  Clay.  0.005-0.0001  millimeter. 

Students  are  required  to  keep  a  careful  record  of  each  experiment,  and  at  the  end 
of  the  term  to  present  plates  showing  their  results,  and  also  illustrations  of  apparatus 
used,  together  with  description  of  the  method  employed. 


E: 


N< 


DETAILED  SCHEDULE  OF  LABORATORY  WORK. 
Advanced  course  in  soils. 

-  ttember  IS  and  19. — Collected  samples  of  soil  from  fallow,  alfalfa,  and  corn 
ground  to  determine  moisture  content  of  first  and  second  foot,  using  sampling  tubes 
and  other  apparatus,  as  illustrated  in  fig.  21. 


To 

September  25  and  26. — Collected  samples  of  surface  foot  of  muck,  first  bottom  and 
Second  botomsoil,  for  determination  of  weight  per  cubic  foot  of  soil  under  field  con- 
ditions, using  large  tube,  as  illustrated  in  fig.  21. 

October  2  and  S. — Discussion  of  results  as  obtained  in  the  above  experiments  with 
special  reference  to  the  methods  of  expressing  amounts  of  water  in  tin-  Boil;  that  is, 
per  cent  fresh  weight,  per  cent  dry  weight,  amount  of  water  per  cubic  foot,  and  sur- 
face inches  water. 

October  9, 10,  in.  i: .  23,  94,  SO,  and  SI. — Mechanical  analysis  of  two  samples  of  soil — 
a  >and  and  a  clay — by  the  Osborne  beaker  method,  as  modified  and  used  by  the 
Bureau  of  Soils  and  described  in  Bulletin  No.  4  of  the  Bureau,  pages  8-13. 

November  6,  7,  13,  and  14- — Separation  of  "silt,"  "fine  silt,"  and  ''clay"  by  the 
centrifugal  method  as  used  in  the  Bureau  of  Soils. 


Fig.  21. — Apparatus  for  taking  soil  samples. 

November  SO,  21,  27,  28,  <i,i<1  December  4,  5,  11,  and  12. — Determination  of  moisture, 
soluble  salts,  and  temperature  of  soils  by  the  electrical  method,  as  described  and 
used  by  the  Bureau  of  Soils. 

Exhibit  No.  9. 

EXAMINATION  IN  ELEMENTARY  COURSE  IN  FARM  CROPS. 

The  following  list  of  examination  questions  will  servo  to  indicate  the  scope  of  the 
work  covered  in  the  course: 

1.  Name  and  explain  the  reasons  for  crop  rotation. 

2.  Explain  three  methods  of  crop  improvement. 

3.  Give  the  following  statistics  on  corn  and  oats  for  the  United  States  during  the 
last  decade:  (a)  Average  annual  acreage;  (6)  average  annual'  yield:  (c)  average 
annual  yield  per  acre;   (d)  average  value  per  acre. 

4.  Name  the  eight  leading  States  in  the  production  of  each  of  the  following  crops: 
Corn,  oats,  and  barley. 

5.  1  >escribe  Btructure  and  give  chemical  composition  of  a  grain  of  wheat. 

6.  Name  the  types  of  Indian  corn  and  give  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of 
each. 

7.  ( rive  the  chemical  composition  of  corn. 

8.  <  >ive  general  directions  as  to  depth  of  planting,  time  of  planting,  and  thickness 
of  planting  corn. 

(.t.   State  tin'  reasons  for  shallow  cultivation  of  corn. 

10.  Discuss  the  following:  Time  of  sowing,  depth  i)\  sowing,  and  amount  of  wheat 
to  sow  per  acre. 

11.  What  points  should  be  considered  in  distinguishing  between  varieties  of  wheat? 

12.  Discuss  briefly  the  cost  and  method-  of  shipping  grain  from  the  farms  of  the 
Northwest  to  the  Atlantic  seaboard. 

13.  State  the  conditions  of  climate,  soil,  and  seed  bed  best  adapted  for  oats. 


71 

14.  Discuss  depth  of  sowing,  time  of  sowing,  and  amount  of  oats  t<>  sow  per  acre. 

15.  Name  the  regions  of  greatest  production  of  rye  and  barley  in  the  United  States. 

16.  Give  briefly  the  history  of  the  cultivation  of  grasses  and  clovers. 

17.  Give  common  and  scientific  name  of  six  grasses  that  are  grown  in  Ohio. 

18  and  19.  Under  the  following  heads  di>cuss  common  red  clover,  crimson  clover, 
alsike  clover,  alfalfa:  (a)  Scientific  name;  (b)  value  for  pasturage  and  hay;  (c)  cli- 
mate and  soil  conditions  favorable. 

20  and  21.  Under  the  following  heads  discuss  Indian  corn  as  a  silage  crop:  (a )  Total 
yield  of  digestible  nutrients  as  compared  with  other  crops;  (b)  varieties  best  adapted; 
(c)  thickness  of  planting;  {d)  proper  stage  of  maturity  for  harvesting. 

22.  Give  directions  for  growing  sugar  beets. 

Exhibit  No.  10. 

LIST  OF  LABORATORY  OR  FIELD  PRACTICUMS  IN  ELEMENTARY  COURSE  IN 

FARM  CROPS. 

Practicum  No.  1. 

Eight  varieties  of  corn  are  grown  on  the  university  farm  annually  tor  instructional 
purposes.  Students  are  given  this  work  in  the  fall  term  of  necessity.  Each  student 
is  provided  with  the  accompanying  score  card  and  asked  to  judge  only  the  stalks  in 
this  exercise. 

Practicum  No.  2. 

The  ears,  husked  from  the  variety  plats,  are  brought  to  the  laboratory,  where  a 
few  of  the  best  are  selected  and  the  students  are  a-ked  to  score  them  carefully, 
according  to  the  card  standards  as  indicated  in  the  following  form: 

Students'  score  card. 

DENT  CORN. 


Scale  of  points. 

-r 

- 
2 

z. 
x 

s 

-5 

X 

z 

jj 

X 

I 

q 

3t 

X 

3 

z 

i 

i 

X 

- 

.. 

on 

7 

3 

V- 

X 

7 

u 

Z 

X 

1 

X 

) 
•6 

z 
O 

i 

X 

0 

z 

0 

11 

Jt 

B  z 
x  O 

1 

z 

r. 
X 

t 
- 

0 

c 

^TALK. 

Height — 11  feet  for  southern.  10  feet  for 

central,  and  9  feet  for  northern  Ohio.. 
dreumjerence  between  first  and  second 
joints.  3|-4i  inches,  giving  sufficient 
support  to  plant  without  undue  coarse- 
ness of  stalk 

3 
3 

" 

" 

•• 

" 

" 

" 

Z^avesabundant,  indicating  growth  and 

adding  to  the  feeding  value  of  the 
plant 

3 

Bueks  abundant  and   moderately  ad- 
hering for  protection  of  ear  against 

3 

3 

15 

-- 

Barren  stalks — should  be  none 

EARS. 

Firmness  of  grains  and  cob.  and  of  grains 
on  the  cob.  indicating  ripeness  and 
market  condition 

Perfection  and  uniformity  of  shape  of 
grains  making  rows  regular,  and  sur- 
face of  ear  smooth  and  even 

" 

Space  between  rows  should  be  filled 

Uniformity  of  color  in  grains  and  cobs, 
indicating  triteness  to  type 

Filling  out  at  ends— ears  should  be  cy- 
lindrical and  well  rounded  out  at  butt 
and  tip 

10 

10 

10 

.::: 

.. 

72 

Students'  scon  card —  Continued. 
DENT  CORN— Continued. 


Scale  of  points. 

i. 

X 

X 

e 

L 

X 

- 

.. 
.. 

» 

c 

i 

■J 

1 

7 

X 

:; 

1 

6 

-/  "0 

L    - 

—    ^ 

3  = 

X 

-. 
u 
Z 

8 

7  J 

9 

a  | 

x  C 

10 

-  I 

X     C 

11 

i 

X 

2 

- 
o 

u 

o 
O 

ears— continued. 
P<  r  cent  of  grain  torar,  85  per  cent.    Esti- 

10 
10 

8 

6 

Length — 10  inches  in  southern  and  cen- 
tral, and  9  inches  in  northern  Ohio  ... 

Circumference,  at  two-fifths  the  length, 
measuring  from  base,  7-7£  inches  in 
southern  and  central,  and  G£-7  inches 
in  northern  Ohio 

Juncture  of  <■<>!>  with  stalk,  %  inch  in  di- 
ameter, giving  sufficient  support  for 
ear  without  causing  inconvenience  in 
breaking 

Total 

"" 

NAME   OK   VARIETY. 


name  of  variety— continued. 


8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 


Student: 

Date:  — 


Practicum  Xo.  3. 

The  selected  ears  are  shelled,  weighed,  and  the  figures  arranged  according  to  the 
following  outline,  which  is  handed  them: 


Variety. 

Weight  ear. 

Weight 
shelled  com. 

Per  cent 
shelled  corn. 

Pounds 

shelled  corn 

in  1  bushel 

cars  it'.s 

pounds). 

Pounds  ears 

in  1  bushel 

shelled  corn. 

No  2                      

No.  4 



No.  6 



No.  6 

;::;;;: 

No.  8 



Remarks: 


Practicum  No.  t. 


A    STUDY    OF   THIRTY-NINE    VARIETIES   OF    WINTER    WHEAT — CLASSIFICATION. 

A.  Bearded: 

(a)  ( Humes  white. 

i  a')   Berry  red. 

1.  Length  of  straw  less  than  .">  feet  6  inches. 

2.  Length  of  straw  more  than  3  feet  <>  inches. 
(1/)   Berry  white. 

3.  Length  of  straw  less  than  3  feet  (>  inches. 

4.  Length  of  straw  more  than  3  feet  6  inches. 


73 

A.  Bearded — Continued. 

(b)  Glumes  bronze. 

(a')  Berry  red. 

5.  Length  of  straw  less  than  3  feet  6  inches. 

6.  Length  of  straw  more  than  3  feet  6  inches. 
(b/)  Berry  white. 

7.  Length  of  straw  less  than  3  feet  6  inches. 

8.  Length  of  straw  more  than  3  feet  6  inches. 

B.  Beardless: 

(a)  Glumes  white. 

(ar)  Berry  red. 

9.  Length  of  straw  less  than  3  feet  6  inches. 

10.  Length  of  straw  more  than  3  feet  6  inches. 
(b7)  Berry  white. 

11.  Length  of  straw  less  than  3  feet  6  inches. 

12.  Length  of  straw  more  than  3  feet  6  inches. 

(b)  Glumes  bronze. 

(a7)  Berry  red. 

13.  Length  of  straw  less  than  3  feet  6  inches. 

14.  Length  of  straw  more  than  3  feet  6  inches. 
(b')  Berry  white. 

15.  Length  of  straw  less  than  3  feet  6  inches. 

16.  Length  of  straw  more  than  3  feet  6  inches 
Each  student  is  required  to  hand  in  a  written  report  of  this  work. 

Practicum  No.  5. 

About  May  1  each  year  the  class  spends  one  period  making  notes  on  the  condition 
of  15  to  20  varieties  of  grasses  and  clovers  in  the  grass  garden  for  use  later  in  the 
term  when  they  come  to  study  the  varieties  more  fully. 

Practicum  No.  6. 

The  "Howe  Grain  Tester"  is  used  in  testing  the  purity  and  weight  per  bushel  of 
wheat,  oats,  etc. 

Practicums  Nos.  7,  8,  9,  and  10. 

About  four  periods  at  the  close  of  the  term  are  given  to  the  study  of  15  to  20  varie- 
ties of  grasses,  clovers,  and  forage  plants.  Students  use  the  dried  specimens  in  the 
laboratory  as  well  as  the  growing  plants  in  the  "grass  garden."  The  following  out- 
line is  given  each  student,  who  is  required  to  present  an  essay  on  the  subject  at  the 
end  of  the  term : 

DESCRIPTION    OF    GRASSES    AND    FORAGE    PLANTS. 

Describe  the  following  plants  from  the  bundles  given  and  state  use,  value,  and 
climatic  range  and  adaptation  to  soil,  and  give  briefly  the  results  obtained  with  these 
plants  at  experiment  stations  and  elsewhere. 

The  following  books  may  be  used  for  reference,  while  below  will  be  given  refer- 
ences under  each  variety  to  results  at  experiment  stations: 

Vasey's  Agricultural  Grasses  of  the  United  States;  Beal's  Grasses  of  North  America; 
Haekel' s  True  Grasses;  Handbook  of  Experiment  Station  Work;  Grasses  of  Ten- 
nessee, Part  II;  Grasses  and  Clovers,  Field  Roots,  Forage  and  Fodder  Plants,  by 
Professor  Shaw;  Reports  of  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture,  1895  and  1900;  Per- 
manent and  Temporary  Pastures,  Sutton;  Forage  Crops  other  than  Grasses,  Shaw; 
Bulletins  of  the  Division  of  Agrostology: 
1.  Poa  pratensis,  L.,  Kentucky  Blue  Grass,  Bulletins  5  and  15,  Illinois  Station;  Bul- 
letin 20,  Mississippi  Station. 


74 

2.  Agrostis  vulgaris,  I...  Kt** It < »] »,  Bulletin  15,  Illinois  Station;  Bulletin  20,  Missis- 
sippi Station. 

:>.   Phleum  pratenst . 

4.  Alopecurus  praiensis,  I...  Meadow  Foxtail. 

">.  Dactylis  glomerata,  1...  Orchard  Grass,  Bulletins  5  ami  L5,  Illinois  Station;  liul- 
letin  2(>,  Mississippi  Station. 

6.  Festuca  elatior. 

7.  Festuca  praiensis,  Buds.,  Meadow  Fescue,  Bulletins  5  and  L5,  Illinois  station. 

8.  Lolium perenne,  L.,  Perennial  Rye  Grass,  Bulletin  12,  Colorado  Station;  Bulletin 

15,  Illinois  Station;   Bulletin  20,  Mississippi  Station. 

9.  Avena  elatior,  L.,  Tall  Meadow  Oat  Grass.  Bulletin  15,  Illinois  Station;  Annual 

Report  1889,  Mississippi  station. 

10.  Anthoxanthum  odoratum. 

11.  Medicago  saliva,  L.,  Alfalfa,   Bulletin  2,  Colorado  station;  Bulletin   15,   Illinois 

Station;  Bulletin  20,  Mississippi  Station:  V.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  Bul- 
letin 31;  Kansas  Report,  1805. 

12.  Trifolium  pratense. 

V.).  Trifolium  incamatum,  Crimson  or  Scarlet  (lover.  Bulletin  1»>,  Delaware  Station; 
Report  89,  Maryland  Station;  Annual  Report  1889,  Mississippi  Station;  Bulle- 
tin 44,  Virginia  Station. 

14.  Trifolium  hybridum.  Alsike  Clover,  Report  SO,  Maryland  Station;  Annual  Report 

1889,  Mississippi  Station;  Bulletin  15,  Illinois  Station. 

15.  Trifolium  repens. 

THE      AGRICULTURAL,      INSTITUTE      OF      THE      UNIVERSITY      OF 

GOTTINGEN. 

By  F.  \Y.  Woll, 
Assistant  Professor  of  Agricultural  Chemistry,  University  of  Wisconsin. 

This  institution  is  one  of  the  oldest  and  foremost  of  its  kind  in  Ger- 
many. It  is  perhaps  better  known  among  American  experiment  sta- 
tion and  college  men  than  any  other  foreign  agricultural  institution. 
on  account  of  the  high  character  of  investigational  work  which  has 
been  conducted  there  during  the  last  half  century,  and  because  of  the 
manv  Americans  who  have  studied  in  Gottingen  during  this  time. 

HISTORY. 

Lectures  on  agriculture  have  been  delivered  at  Gottingen  University 

since  177<>.  when  J.  Beckmann  was  appointed  regular  professor  of 
agriculture  in  the  university.  He  lectured  on  the  subject  of  agricul- 
ture every  summer  until  his  death  in  1811,  and  also  founded  an 
agricultural-botanical  garden  to  supply  instructional  material  for  his 
lectures,  in  which  all  German  plants  of  interest  agriculturally  were  to 
be  grown.  It  Is  characteristic  that  theobjectof  the  lectures  delivered 
was  not  to  educate  intending  farmers,  hut  "to  give  an  insight  in  farm 
operations  to  students  who.  later  on  in  public  service4,  would  he  called 
upon  to  represent  economic  interests." 

With  some  interruptions,  the  lectures  were  continued  until  L852. 
In  that  year  a  special  agricultural  course  of  instruction  was  arranged 


75 

for  at  the  university,  through  the  efforts  of  the  political  economist, 
Professor  Hanssen,  of  Gottingen  University.  The  course  was  planned 
to  last  four  semesters  and  was  placed  under  the  immediate  charge  of 
an  agricultural  faculty  composed  of  four  professors,  among  whom 
were  TVohler.  the  famous  chemist,  and  Gripenkerl.  who  until  his 
death  in  1900  filled  the  chair  of  agriculture  in  the  university.  The 
plan  of  study  of  the  new  course  was  comprehensive.  Besides  the 
various  fundamental  natural  sciences,  it  included  agricultural  chem- 
istry, veterinary  science,  meteorology,  agronomy,  farm  management, 
forestry,  political  science,  and  rural  law.  The  theoretical  studies 
were  to  be  supplemented  by  agricultural  excursions  to  estates  in  the 
vicinity  of  Gottingen;  special  arrangements  were  made  by  which  the 
large  Government  estate.  TVeende  (an  old  monastery  farm,  situated 
about  a  mile  north  of  Gottingen),  could  be  visited  at  any  time  for 
instructional  purposes,  and  agricultural  experiments  could  also  be 
made  on  the  land  belonging  to  the  estate. 

The  new  course  started  under  favorable  auspices  and  received  an 
impetus  through  the  establishment  of  the  AVeende  Experiment  Station 
in  1857  by  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  Hanover.  One  object 
in  establishing  the  experiment  station  was  to  supplement  the  agricul- 
tural instruction  at  the  university  by  demonstrations,  "just  as  if  it 
were  an  organic  part  of  the  same.**  In  1857  the  official  name  of  the 
course  was  changed  to  the  Roval  Agricultural  Academv  of  Gottingen- 
Weende,  so  as  to  give  definite  expression  to  the  close  connection 
between  the  theoretical  instruction  offered  at  the  university  and  the 
practical  work  at  the  model  Government  farm,  Weende.  The  attend- 
ance at  the  academy  gradually  increased  from  only  four  students  in 
1851  to  over  forty  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixties.  About  this  time 
the  number  of  students  that  came  to  receive  agricultural  instruction 
began  to  grow  smaller,  and  there  was  a  steady  decrease  during  the  fol- 
lowing years,  until  in  1871-72  scarcely  more  than  a  dozen  attended  the 
academy.  The  cause  of  the  decreasing  attendance  during  the  last 
years  of  this  period  was  not  difficult  to  understand  in  view  of  the  fact 
that  the  Agricultural  Institute  of  Halle  University,  which  was  estab- 
lished in  1863,  showed  a  steadily  increasing  attendance  during  the 
same  time.  The  Nestor  among  agricultural  university  teachers,  Julius 
Kuhn,  through  whose  efforts  the  Halle  Agricultural  Institute  was 
established,  and  to  whom  more  than  any  other  man  is  due  the  credit 
foi  the  splendid  growth  of  agricultural  university  instruction,  both  in 
Germany  and  in  other  countries,  was  the  first  one  to  call  attention  to 
the  fact  that  an  agricultural  educational  institution  that  is  nothing  but 
a  professional  school  does  not  supply  the  facilities  for  instruction 
which  the  times  demand.  Agricultural  science  is  not  merely  an  aggre- 
gation of  applied  sciences,  it  has  its  own  special  sphere,  and  in  order 
to  live  and  develop  it  must  have  opportunities  for  verification  of  prac- 


76 

tical  experiences  and  for  investigation  of  its  special  problem. — similar 
facilities  to  those  long  ago  accorded,  e.  g.,  to  medicine.  Teachers 
who  lack  this  opportunity  to  verity  and  enlarge  the  knowledge  of  the 
principles  of  agriculture  can  not  do  the  best  work  for  their  students 

or  for  their  profession. 

A  reorganization  of  the  Grottingen  Agricultural  Academy  took  place 
during  1871-1875,  to  a  large  extent  in  accordance  with  the  ideas  which 
J.  Kiihn  advanced  and  advocated  with  signal  success.  The  new  agri- 
cultural institute  of  the  University  of  Gottingen  (PI.  XV)  dates  from 
this  period.  New  buildings  were  erected,  laboratories  built,  the 
Weende  Experiment  Station  was  removed  to  the  agricultural  institute 
(in  1874),  and  experimental  grounds,  with  garden  and  greenhouse, 
were  provided  for.  Later  changes  made  have  been  comparatively 
few,  and  only  one  of  greater  importance,  viz.  the  recent  establish- 
ment of  an  agricultural-bacteriological  institute,  the  first  one  of  its 
kind  in  the  world,  so  far  as  is  known. 

The  attendance  at  the  institute  during  late  years,  according  to  the 
published  university  catalogue,  has  been  about  30.  A  number  of  spe- 
cial students,  however,  take  single  lectures  or  special  laboratory  work 
in  the  institute  without  being  registered  as  agricultural  students,  so 
that  the  actual  number  of  students  attending  lectures  of  professors  or 
working  in  the  laboratories  of  the  institute  is  somewhat  greater  than 
the  figure  given,  but  is  at  any  rate  small  compared  with  the  attendance 
in  agricultural  educational  institutions  of  similar  standing  in  this 
country. 

PRESENT    ORGANIZATION. 

The  Gottingen  Agricultural  Institute,  as  organized  at  present,  is 
composed  of  six  different  departments,  viz: 

(1)  General  agriculture  and  animal  husbandry,  in  charge  of  the 
director  of  the  institute.  Prof.  W.  Fleischmann. 

(2)  Agricultural  chemical  laboratory  of  the  university.  Prof.  B. 
Tollens. 

(3)  Agricultural  experimental  grounds.  Prof.  C.  von  Seelhorst. 

(4)  Animal  physiological  experiment  station.  Prof.  Franz  Lehmann. 

(5)  The  veterinary  institute  of  the  university.  Prof.  H.  J.  Esser. 

(6)  The  agricultural  bacteriological  institute  of  the  university.  Prof. 
Alfred  Koch. 

Assistants  in  th<  agricvltu7,al  institute.  —  In  oik1  respect  there  is  a 
marked  difference  between  the  Gottingen  Agricultural  Institute  and 
Station  and  our  American  colleges  and  stations,  viz.  the  abundant  help, 
skilled  or  otherwise,  available  for  the  routine  work  to  be  done.  The 
janitors  of  the  European  stations  do  a  large  amount  of  semichemical 
work  and  render  valuable  service  in  many  ways  that  those  in  America 
are  never  called  upon  to  do;  the  assistant.-  or  division  heads  have  in 


U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bui.  127,  Office  of  Expt   Statior 


Plate  XV. 


77 

general  complete  charge  of  all  routine  work  in  their  respective  depart- 
ments, such  as  laboratory  instruction  and  the  preparation  of  demon- 
stration material  for  lectures,  thus  enabling  the  director  or  professor 
to  devote  nearly  his  undivided  time  and  energies  to  work  of  a  higher 
grade  and  to  his  own  studies.  The  following  statement  gives  the 
number  of  assistants  and  janitors  or  unskilled  laborers,  in  the  Gottingen 
Agricultural  Institute  during  the  season  of  1901: 


Departments.  Assistants.   '£££££ 


Dairy  laboratory 

Agricultural  chemical  laboratoiy 

Plant  culture  station 

Animal  physiological  station 

Veterinary'department 

Agricultural  bacteriological  institute 

Total 


1 

1 

1 

1 

3 

"  «9 

o 

•> 

1 

1 

1 

1 

10 

'■15 

"Three  in  winter.  ''Nine  in  winter. 

REQUIREMENTS    FOR    ADMISSION. 

To  be  admitted  as  a  student  in  the  agricultural  institute,  as  in  all 
other  departments  of  the  university,  one  must  go  through  the  formal- 
ity of  matriculation.  Germans  arc  matriculated  when  they  are  gradu- 
ate- of   a  gymnasium   (high   school)  or  have  a  similar  preliminary 

education,  while  for  foreigners  a  diploma  from  a  recognized  college  or 
university  is  required.  Some  latitude  as  to  preliminary  education 
required  is  allowed  in  admitting  agricultural  students,  and  older  farm- 
er-, as  well  as  other-  who  wish  to  attend  lectures,  may  he  admitted  as 
Hospitanten  or  Horer  (special  students)  almost  without  regard  to 
previous  training.  Several  years  of  practical  farm  work  are  con- 
sidered highly  desirable,  and  students  are  urged  to  come  to  the  uni- 
versity so  equipped,  but  previous  training  in  this  line  is  not  required. 
A  very  large  proportion  of  the  agricultural  students  are  the  sons  of 
more  or  less  well-to-do  farmers,  who  have  taken  part  in  the  farm  work 
when  their  school  studies  allowed  it.  and  who  expect  to  return  to  the 
home  farm  on  the  successful  completion  of  their  university  work: 
others  expect  to  seek  positions  as  foremen  on  large  estates,  or  as 
teachers  in  the  lower  agricultural  schools. 

COURSE    OF    STUDY. 

There  is  no  rigid  course  of  study  offered  in  the  agricultural  institute. 
nor  is  the  duration  of  the  course  at  all  fixed;  it  is  expected  that  the 
required  studies  can  he  finished  in  rive  or  six  semesters,  hut  it  depends 
on  the  student  himself  whether  or  not  he  will  present  himself  for 
examinations  after  this  time.  The  following  studies  are  required  in 
the  agricultural  course  as  arranged  at  the  present:  History  of  agri- 
culture: plant  production,  horticulture,  plant  diseases:  animal   hus- 


78 

bandry  -breeding,  rearing,  and  feeding  of  horses,  cattle,  sheep, 
swine,  and  poultry;  veterinary  science;  agricultural  physics — drain- 
age, irrigation,  surveying,  agricultural  machinery  and  apparatus,  farm 
buildings;  farm  management  and  farm  bookkeeping.  In  addition  to 
these  professional  studies  the  following  fundamental  sciences  are 
required:  Chemistry  (general,  industrial,  agricultural),  phvsics.  bot- 
any (general,  systematic,  physiological),  bacteria  and  yeasts,  zoology, 
geology  and  mineralogy,  meteorology,  political  economy,  and  rural 
law.  The  instruction  is  imparted  by  means  of  lectures,  laboratory 
work,  demonstrations,  excursions,  and  seminars. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  many  of  the  agricultural  students  have  a  lim- 
ited  previous  training,  the  lectures  offered  in  the  agricultural  institute 
at  Gottingen,  as  in  other  German  institutions  of  this  class,  are.  as  a  gen- 
eral  rule,  quite  elementary.  It  is  well  for  American  students  intending 
to  study  in  Europe  to  bear  this  in  mind,  as  it  will  save  them  from  dis- 
appointment later  on.  The  information  conveyed  in  a  course  of  lec- 
tures which  may  not  cover  more  than  two  or  three  hours  a  week  for  a 
brief  German  university  semester — sixteen  to  seventeen  weeks  in  win- 
ter and  twelve  to  thirteen  weeks  in  summer — must  necessarily  be  gen- 
eral and  can  present  only  the  main  facts  of  the  subject  treated.  And 
after  all.  the  knowledge  thus  conveyed  is  but  a  small  part  of  the  bene- 
fit derived  from  attending  such  a  course  of  lectures;  of  far  higher 
value  to  the  young  student  must  be  counted  the  opportunity  of  becom- 
ing acquainted  with  a  thinker,  to  note  his  methods  of  treatment  and 
presentation,  and  to  catch  something  of  the  enthusiasm  of  a  scholar. 

methods  Of  instruction. 

The  lectures  delivered  are,  whenever  possible,  illustrated  by  charts, 
maps,  museum  specimens,  or  simple  experiments.  In  the  lectures 
on  plant  nutrition,  for  example,  the  whole  lecture  table  is  generally 
covered  with  specimens  of  minerals,  soils,  soil  constituents,  or  fertili- 
zers, according  to  the  subject  to  be  treated  in  the  lecture.  A  synopsis 
of  each  lecture,  or  manifold  copies  of  tables  of  figures  and  the  like,  to 
which  reference  will  be  made  in  the  lecture,  are  also  furnished  by 
some  professors.  The  literature  on  the  subject  treated  is  also  gener- 
ally shown,  either  at  the  beginning  of  the  course  or  as  a  special  topic 
is  reached,  and  usually  sent  around  the  class  for  inspection,  in  the 
same  way  as  the  specimens  referred  to  in  the  lectures.  Electric  or 
other  kinds  of  stereopticons  are  used  at  times  for  exhibiting  pictures, 
charts,  etc..  on  a  screen,  but  not  to  such  an  extent  as  in  our  better- 
equipped  institutions,  nor  as  successfully,  so  far  as  my  experience 
goes. 


79 


INSTRUCTION    IN    AGRONOMY. 


The  method  of  instruction  in  agronomy  adopted  at  the  Gottingen 
Agricultural  Institute  is  of  interest  to  the  student  of  agriculture 
because  of  the  rich  material  for  illustration  and  demonstration  at 
hand  and  the  excellent  opportunity  which  the  excursions  made  to  the 
many  large  estates  in  the  surrounding  country  offer  for  studying  dif- 
ferent systems  of  farming  under  German  conditions.  The  American 
student  will  find  the  work  done  in  this  line  full  of  suggestions  and 
directly  applicable  at  least  to  Eastern  conditions.  The  instruction  is 
carried  on  by  means  of  lectures,  laboratory  work,  demonstration  on 
the  experimental  grounds  and  in  the  garden,  agricultural  excursions, 
and  the  agricultural  seminar.  This  work  is  in  charge  of  the  director 
of  the  agricultural  experimental  grounds,  Prof.  C.  von  Seelhorst, 
who  is  also  professor  of  agronomy  in  the  university. 

Lectures  and  laboratory  work. — The  courses  of  lectures  offered  in 
agronomy  are.  in  the  winter  semester,  general  plant  production  (plant 
life)  and  breeding  of  agricultural  crops:  in  the  summer  semester. 
culture  of  special  crops,  and  weeds  and  plant  diseases.  The  charac- 
teristics of  the  various  kinds  of  grains,  roots,  tubers,  and  other  agri- 
cultural crops  are  discussed  in  the  special  course,  specimens  of  grain 
in  the  sheaf,  potatoes,  seeds,  etc..  being  supplied  in  each  case,  and 
botanical  charts  and  other  illustrative  material  shown.  The  labora- 
tory instruction  is  given  throughout  the  year  one  afternoon  in  the 
week.  It  consists  of  microscopical  and  agricultural  examinations  of 
concentrated  feeding  stuffs  as  to  more  important  adulterations,  qual- 
ity, etc.;  further  seed  tests,  and.  in  the  winter  semester,  studies  of 
plant  diseases.  Chemical  analyses  of  crops,  soils,  fertilizers,  etc..  are 
made  only  as  required  in  special  investigations,  the  general  methods 
adopted  in  the  laboratory  work  being  such  as  the  students  will  be 
likehv  to  use  and  can  use  later  on  in  their  work  on  the  farm. 

Demonstrations. — The  demonstrations  on  the  experimental  grounds, 
in  the  garden  and  the  greenhouse  are  of  special  interest  and  value  to 
the  students.  They  are  given  once  a  week  (Monday  morning  from  7 
to  8)  during  the  whole  year  so  long  as  there  is  anything  of  interest 
agriculturally  to  be  seen  outside.  The  writer  attended  all  demonstra- 
tions given  during  the  summer  semester  of  1901.  and  was  pleased  to 
observe  the  interest  which  the  students  evidently  took  in  the  demon- 
strations, as  well  as  agreeably  surprised  to  note  the  regularity  with 
which  the  students  met  at  this  rather  unusual  hour,  a  regularity  which 
was  the  more  surprising  as  the  attendance  at  lectures,  in  the  summer 
semester  at  least,  at  most  German  universities  is  far  from  regular. 
The  popularity  of  the  professor  in  charge  doubtless  contributed  to 
bring  about  this  result,  but  not  more  than  did  the  practical  nature  of 
the  subject  and  the  abundant  material  for  demonstration  at  hand.  In 
these  demonstrations   the   professor  would  conduct  the   class  to  the 


80 

particular  part  of  the  grounds  which  he  wished  to  speak  about,  and 
would  then  explain  the  experiments  in  progress  and  call  attention  to 
special  points  of  importance.     The  next  and  following  weeks  a  stop 

would  be  made  at  the  same  plats  to  note  the  development  of  the  crop 
under  the  different  conditions,  differentiation  of  varieties  or  of  crops 
under  different  systems  of  fertilization,  etc.  The  continuity  of  the 
demonstrations  gave  these  talks  increased  value,  the  eyes  of  the  students 
became  trained  to  detect  minute  differences  in  the  color  or  luxuriance 
of  plants,  and  they  could  follow  the  gradual  differentiations  in  plants 
from  week  to  week  due  to  different  conditions  of  fertilization  or  other 
influences.  The  effects  of  a  scarcity  or  an  excess  of  moisture:  effects 
of  hail  on  different  crops,  and  how  they  gradually  recover,  or  fail 
to  recover,  from  these  effects;  estimation  of  the  damage  done  by  hail, 
weeds,  attacks  of  insect,  or  fungus  diseases;  identification  of  these, 
their  methods  of  attack  and  distribution,  and  how  to  combat  them: 
estimations  of  yields  of  different  crops,  etc..  are  some  of  the  almost 
innumerable  subjects* which  furnish  a  well-informed  teacher  material 
for  lectures  in  the  field.  The  lectures  were  informal  talks,  often 
interrupted  by  questioning  of  the  students  as  to  their  opinions  of 
matters  observed  or  to  be  observed.  The  students  would  jot  down  in 
their  note  books,  although  not  as  frequently  as  desirable,  facts  or 
suggestions  brought  out.  Aside  from  the  fact  that  the  demonstra- 
tions served  as  a  convenient  method  of  gathering  a  large  amount  of 
direct  practical  information  on  farm  topics,  they  were  of  great  value 
to  the  students  in  teaching  them  to  use  their  eyes  and  to  apply  knowl- 
edge obtained  in  other  disciplines,  and  last,  but  not  least,  served  to 
create  or  maintain  an  interest  and  enthusiasm  for  farm  matters  which 
perhaps  no  other  method  of  instruction  would  be  likely  to  equal. 

It  might  be  thought  that  there  could  hardly  be  anything  new  or 
interesting  to  note  on  grounds  but  little  over  L5  acres  in  area  when 
the  demonstrations  came  as  often  as  once  every  week,  but  with  the 
rich  materia]  available,  which  included  dozens  of  different  plat  experi- 
ments with  all  kinds  of  farm  crops,  rotation  experiments,  fertilizer 
tests,  pot  experiments,  etc..  this  was  not  the  case:  on  the  contrary, 
the  hour  proved  invariably  too  short  to  go  over  only  the  portion  of 
the  grounds  planned  each  time.  The  arrangement  of  the  German 
university  yearis  most  favorable  for  observing  the  larger  share  of  the 
round  of  farm  operations.  The  summer  semester  covers  the  time 
from  the  end  of  April  to  the  beginning  of  August,  and  the  winter 
semester  tin4  time  from  the  end  of  ( )ctober  to  the  beginning  of  March. 
In  these  two  periods  nearly  the  whole  growing  periods  of  most  farm 
crops  fall,  and  most  of  the  important  farm  work,  like  preparation  of 
the  land  in  the  spring;  seeding  of  spring  grains:  planting  of  peas. 
beans,  root  crops,  and  potatoes,  and  cultivation  of  the  same:  cutting 
and  curing  of  hay:  cutting,  stacking,  and  harvesting  of  small  grains, 


81 

peas,  and  other  crops;  securing  the  second  crop  of  ha}T;  harvesting 
and  storing  of  root  crops  and  potatoes;  preparing  and  seeding  land  to 
winter  grains,  etc.  Thus  a  full  year's  attendance  at  the  demonstra- 
tions will  bring  all  the  main  farm  operations  up  for  discussion;  it  will 
acquaint  the  students  with  the  best  practices  in  all  cases,  and  will  give 
them  a  fund  of  combined  practical  and  theoretical  knowledge  which 
can  be  drawn  upon  for  assistance  throughout  their  lifetime. 

Excursions. — A  fourth  method  of  instruction  in  agronomy  at  Got- 
tingen  Agricultural  Institute  is  supplied  by  the  agricultural  excursions 
which  are  made  to  estates  in  the  vicinity  of  Gottingen  once  every  week, 
generally  Saturday  afternoons,  but  at  times  covering  one  or  more  da}\s. 
The  professor  and  students  are  shown  around  the  premises  by  the  owner, 
or  in  his  absence,  by  his  foreman,  who  explains  the  system  of  farming- 
followed,  the  character  of  soil  and  manuring  in  the  different  fields, 
and  the  history  of  these  for  a  couple  of  years  back  as  to  crops  grown 
and  systems  of  fertilization.  Stables,  barns,  tool  sheds,  and  other  farm 
buildings  are  also  visited,  and  the  owner's  experience  is  ascertained  in 
each  case,  questions  put  by  the  professor  or  any  in  the  party  being  as 
a  rule  answered  in  an  open,  businesslike  way.  The  excursion  gener- 
ally ends  with  a  short  social  time,  when  light  refreshments  are  often 
served,  and  points  not  previously  touched  upon,  or  more  general  topics 
connected  with  the  farm  management,  arc  brought  up  and  discussed. 
The  party  is  apparently  heartily  welcome  at  all  the  places  visited,  the 
farmers  seeming  to  consider  it  an  honor  to  receive  their  visitors,  in 
spite  of  the  fact  that  the  visit  in  some  cases  is  a  yearly  or  even  a  half- 
yearly  affair.  The  hospitable  spirit  shown  toward  the  professor  and 
the  young  men  who  are  about  to  enter  into  practical  farm  work  them- 
selves, is  strong  evidence  of  the  high  esteem  in  which  German  farmers 
hold  their  higher  agricultural  educational  institutions  and  the  men  who 
are  intrusted  with  the  instruction  of  their  sons  or  neighbors'  sons  in 
their  future  profession. 

As  the  excursions  are  under  the  charge  of  the  professor  of  agronomy 
they  are  necessarily  of  greater  benefit  to  students  in  furnishing  infor- 
mation in  this  line  than  along  the  line  of  animal  husbandry,  or  special 
dairy  husbandry.  In  the  latter  subjects  there  is,  in  general,  less  to  be 
learned  in  a  German  university,  or  in  Germany  on  the  whole,  b}T  an 
American  student,  than  in  almost  any  other  branch  of  study,  so  far  as 
the  writer's  experience  goes. 

The  relations  of  the  Government  estate,  Weende,  to  the  agricultural 
institute  are  somewhat  different  from  those  of  the  other  estates  visited, 
in  so  far  as  the  renter  is  under  contract  to  give  agricultural  students 
occasional  talks  on  the  work  in  progress  on  the  estate,  and  to  allow 
inspection  of  the  estate  by  the  students  at  any  time.  The  fact  that  the 
present  renter  of  the  estate,  Oekonomierat  Beseler,  is  one  of  the  promi- 
nent grain  growers  of  Germany,  who,  besides  being  the  originator  of 
26777— No.  127—03 6 


82 

a  Dumber  of  improved  strains  of  small  grains,  especially  wheat  and  oats, 
is  a  progressive  farmer  and  an  excellent  instructor,  makes  the  excur- 
sions to  Weende  of  the  highest  value  to  the  agricultural  students. 
The  Weende  estate  has  a  total  area  of  672  acres,  of  which  about  480 
acres  of  fields  and  meadows  lie  in  the  alluvial  or  diluvial  soil  of  the 
Leine  Valley,  and  the  rest  is  keuper  (poecilitic)  soil.  To  the  AVeende 
estate  belongs  also  the  Deppoldshauscn  branch  farm,  situated  on  the 
Gottingen  forest  plateau,  about  1,000  feet  high,  and  3  miles  distant 
from  Weende.  This  farm  lies  in  the  shell-lime  formation,  and  1ms 
a  thin  clay  soil  calling  for  methods  of  farming  entirely  different  from 
those  of  the  valley  farms;  it  includes  an  area  of  360  acres  of  cultivated 
land  and  TV  acres  of  pastures.  The  system  of  farming  followed  on 
estates  in  the  vicinity  of  Gottingen  is  mostly  grain  raising  and  sugar- 
beet  culture,  but  there  are  also  a  number  of  large  dairy  farms  that  are 
visited  at  intervals. 

Seminar, — The  fifth  branch  of  the  instruction  in  plant  production 
in  Gottingen  is  the  agricultural  seminar.  This  is  held  in  conjunction 
with  the  agricultural  excursions,  and  meets  once  a  week  from  8  to  9.30 
in  the  evening  (0  to  7.30  in  the  winter),  the  professor  of  agronomy 
conducting  the  seminar.  One  of  the  students,  acting  as  reporter  on 
the  agricultural  excursion,  prepares  a  paper  on  the  estate  visited, 
which  is  read  at  the  seminar.  In  this  a  full  account  is  given  of  what 
has  been  seen  or  learned  about  the  place  visited,  and  criticisms  are 
offered  as  to  farming  methods,  etc.  The  discussion  following  the 
paper  brings  out  important  points  that  were  not  considered  in  the 
paper,  and  enlarges  upon  such  not  sufficiently  elucidated.  The  business 
side  of  the  farm  operations,  the  economy  of  systems  of  fertilization, 
the  statics  of  fertilizing  ingredients  in  the  soil,  system  of  crop  rota- 
tion adopted,  and  special  conditions  of  soil  or  markets  under  which 
the  farmer  works  are  among  the  subjects  likely  to  come  up  for  discus- 
sion each  time.  The  regular  attendance  of  the  students  at  the  seminar, 
and  the  lively  discussions  which  generally  arise  as  to  methods  of  farm 
practice  or  principles  underlying  these,  testify  to  the  interest  which 
the  students  take  in  this  work  and  the  benefit  which  they  derive  from 
taking  part  in  the  seminar. 

FACILITIES    FOR    INSTRUCTION. 

The  facilities  for  work  in  the  various  departments  are  in  general  up 
to  the  requirements  of  modern  educational  institutions,  even  according 
to  the  standards  common  in  this  country,  where,  as  a  rule,  buildings 
and  equipment  have  been  provided  for  the  special  purpose  in  view, 

and  arc  not.  as  is  often  the  case  abroad,  the  adapted  inheritance  of 
earlier  times.  An  American  student  will  most  likely  be  surprised, 
however,  to  note  the  small  scab4  on  which  the  equipment  is  arranged 

at  Gottingen.   as   at    nearly  all  other  German  agricultural  colleges. 


83 


The  dairy  and  bacteriological  laboratory  of  Professor  Fleischmann, 
whose  name  is  identified  with  the  development  of  dairy  science  in  all 
its  phases  from  its  beginning  until  the  present  time,  consists  of  two 
rooms,  one  about  24  by  40  feet  and  the  other  24  by  14  feet,  with 
accommodations  for  less  than  half  a  dozen  students.  The  agricultural 
chemical  laboratory  (Professor  Tollens)  consists  of  two  rooms,  one  for 
qualitative  and  quantitative  analysis,  with  accommodations  for  3(3  stu- 
dents, and  one  for  advanced  or  thesis  work,  for  10  students.  The  gen- 
eral auditorium  or  lecture  room  of  the  agricultural  institute  has  a  seat- 
ing capacity  of  about  36.  and  is  never  crowded — less  than  ever  later 
in  the  semester,  owing  to 
the  German  system  of  non- 
compulsory  attendance. 

For  purposes  of  instruc- 
tion and  demonstration  in 
agronomy  use  is  made  of 
the  experimental  grounds, 
greenhouse,  and  other 
equipment  of  the  plant- 
culture  experiment  sta- 
tion. The  experimental 
grounds  have  a  total  area, 
of  about  15  acres,  and  ad- 
join the  agricultural  insti- 
tute on  the  north  (PI.  XVI. 
figs.  1  and  2).  Experi- 
mental work  on  this  land 
was  begun  by  Professor 
Drechsler  in  the  beginning- 
of  the  seventies,  and  has 
included  trials  of  systems 
of  rotations,  variety  tests 
of  farm  crops,  fertilizer  experiments,  and  improvement  of  cereals  and 
other  crops  through  continued  selection.  The  diagram  herewith  given 
shows  the  divisions  of  the  experimental  grounds  (fig.  22).  The  crops 
grown  on  these  in  1901  were  as  follows: 

Field  A. — Gottinger  rye. 

Field  B  I. — Square-head  wheat. 

Field  B  II — Potatoes,  22  varieties.     Potash  fertilizer  experiments. 

Field  C—  Red  clover. 

Field  I). — Peas,  2  varieties,  and  beans.  Potash  fertilizer  experi- 
ments. 

Field  FL — Rye,  flax,  winter  wheat,  mangel-wurzels,  barley,  beans, 
potatoes,  spring  wheat,  oats,  sugar  beets,  and  potatoes.  Fertilizer 
experiments. 


Fig.  22.- 


-P'.an  of  experimental  grounds  at  G<",ttingen  Agri- 
cultural Institute. 


84 

FiJ<l  F. — Plant  breeding  experiments  with  rye,  winter  wheat, 
spring  wheat,  oats,  sugar  beets,  and  potatoes.  Fertilizer  experiments 
with  oats  and  sugar  beets. 

Field  /-'(south  of  plant-breeding  plats). — Clover,  tests  of  30  varie- 
ties of  different  origin;  spring  wheat.  8  varieties;  potatoes,  breeding 
experiments  with  4  varieties. 

F'nhl  F  (east  of  plant-breeding  plats).— Sugar  and  fodder  beets 
(experiments  with  diiferent  distances  of  planting);  potatoes,  5  varie- 
ties; peas,  2  varieties. 

Field  G. — Oats,  Gottinger  and  Beseler's  improved,  with  clover. 

Field  II. — Root  crops:  Sugar  beets,  mangel-wurzels.  Potash  fer- 
tilizer experiments. 

Field  I. — Square-head  wheat. 

In  the  trial  garden  small  plats  are  grown  of  all  plants  of  agricultural 
importance  to  northern  Germany,  the  different  kinds  of  grasses  and 
fodder  plants,  cereals,  root  crops,  small  fruits,  weeds,  etc.  Mixtures 
of  grasses  and  leguminous  plants  are  also  grown  under  different  sys: 
terns  of  fertilization,  to  study  the  effect  or  to  obtain  demonstration 
material  for  showing  the  effect  of  certain  fertilizers  in  favoring  the 
growth  of  some  plants  and  checking  that  of  others.  Similar  experi- 
ments were  also  conducted  during  the  season  of  1901  in  pots  in  the 
greenhouse,  under  liberal  or  scant  supplies  of  water,  in  the  study  of 
the  effect  of  water  supply  on  the  action  of  different  fertilizers  or  com- 
binations of  such. 

Pot  experiments  are  conducted  in  the  greenhouse  shown  in  PL  XVII. 
The  dimensions  of  the  greenhouse  are  23  by  4(.>  feet,  with  a  workroom 
added.  L3  by  36  feet.  It  has  accommodations  for  about  6<><>  pots, 
which  are  placed  on  trucks  and  in  good  weather  always  kept  outside. 
The  experiments  are  conducted  according  to  the  plan  worked  out  at 
the  Darmstadt  station.  The  general  problem  studied  during  late  years 
is  the  influence  of  the  water  supply  on  the  utilization  of  different 
kinds  of  fertilizers  by  cereals,  grasses,  and  other  farm  crops.  The 
laboratory  investigations  are  chiefly  supplementary  to  experiments 
conducted  in  the  lield,  garden,  or  greenhouse,  the  main  work  of  the 
assistants  being  the  chemical  analysis  of  materials  harvested,  soils, 
fertilizers,  etc  A  great  deal  of  independent  research  work  has,  how- 
ever, also  been  conducted  in  the  laboratory,  and  has  from  time  to  time 
been  published  in  the  periodical  literature,  especially  in  the  Journal 
fiir  Landwirtschaft. 

Library  <nnl  museum.  A  description  of  a  German  agricultural 
institute  would  be  incomplete  without  a  mention  of  its  library  and 
museum,  both  of  which  form  all-important  parts  of  the  facilities  for 
instruction  and  research.  The  library  of  the  Gottingen  Agricultural 
Institute  is  small,  less  than  3,000  volumes,  but  is  very  complete  in 
German  works  on  agriculture  and  allied  subjects.     To  an  American 


U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  BuL  127,  Office  of  Expt  Stations. 


Plate  XVI. 


Fig.  1 .— Gottingen  Agricultural  Institute— Looking  Southeast. 


Fig.  2.— Gottingen  Agricultural  Institute— Looking  Northeast  from  Institute 
Buildings  Across  the  Experiment  Plats. 


U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bui    127    Office  of  Expt.  Stations. 


Plate  XVI 


Gottingen  Agricultural  Institute— Greenhouse. 


85 

student  the  absence  of  the  best  foreign  (English  or  American)  agri- 
cultural literature,  in  this  library  as  in  all  other  German  libraries  with 
which  the  writer  is  acquainted,  will  seem  strange.  In  the  laboratories 
of  the  institute  are  found  special  small,  but  good,  reference  libraries, 
which  are  accessible  at  all  times  and  are  of  great  service  to  students. 
There  is  also  a  reading  room,  where  current  numbers  of  the  leading 
German  (and  other  continental -European)  agricultural  papers  and 
scientific  magazines  are  kept. 

The  museum  of  the  Gottingen  Agricultural  Institute  was  founded 
in  1S51  by  Professor  Gripenkerl,  and  therefore  represents  half  a  cen- 
tury's growth.  The  agricultural  faculty  have  here  from  year  to  year 
deposited  collections  in  their  respective  lines  of  instruction  and  inves- 
tigation, with  the  view  of  making  it  valuable  for  instructional  pur- 
poses rather  than  of  establishing  an  agricultural  museum.  The 
collection  of  feeding  stuffs  contains  samples  of  feeds  used  by  Henne- 
berg  in  his  fundamental  studies  on  the  nutrition  of  farm  animals,  and 
numerous  other  specimens  in  the  museum  bear  testimony  of  investi- 
gations conducted  at  Gottingen  during  the  latter  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  The  rich  collections  thus  accumulated  form  invaluable 
material  for  demonstration  and  are  constantly  utilized  by  the  pro- 
fessor^ in  their  lectures. 

O 


UNIVERSITY  OF  FLORIDA 


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